Chapter 4

For bridge-building the value of this metal has lately been much disputed, though we have several notable examples of its use in the earlier days for such structures. In fact, the use of cast iron for structural purposes is not older than the time of Smeaton, who in 1755 employed it for mill construction, and about the same time the great Coalbrookdale Viaduct was erected across the Severn near Broseley, which gave an impetus to the use of cast iron for bridge construction. The viaduct had a span of 100 feet, and was composed of ribs cast in two pieces; it was erected from castings designed by Mr. Pritchard, of Shrewsbury, an architect, and this circumstance is worthy of note as showing that an architect really was the first to employ this material for important structural work, and that the same profession was the first to reject it upon traditional grounds. It is quite certain, however, the bridge-builder lost no time in trying his hand upon so tractable a material; for not long after Telford erected a bridge at Buildwas of even a greater span, and the famous cast-iron bridge over the river Wear at Sunderland was erected from the designs of Thomas Paine, the author of the "Age of Reason." Iron bridges quickly followed upon these early experiments, for we hear of several being built on the arched system, and large cotton-mills being erected upon fireproof principles at the commencement of the present century, the iron girders and columns of one mill being designed by Boulton and Watt. A little later, Eaton Hodgkinson proved by experiments the uncertainty of cast iron with regard to tensile strength, which he showed to be much less than had been stated by Tredgold. Cast iron was afterwards largely adopted by engineers. The experiments of Hodgkinson supplied a safe foundation of facts to work upon, and cast iron has ever since retained its hold. Thomas Paine's celebrated bridge at Sunderland had a span of 236 feet and a rise of 34 feet, and was constructed of six ribs, and is remarkable from the fact that the arched girder principle used in the Coalbrookdale and Buildwas bridges was rejected, that the ribs were composed of segments or voussoirs, each made up of 125 parts, thus treating the material in the manner of stone. Each voussoir was a cast-iron framed piece two feet long and five feet in depth, and these were bolted together. The Southwark bridge over the Thames, by Sir John Rennie, followed, in which a similar principle of construction is adopted. There is much to be said in favor of a system which puts each rib under compression in the manner of a stone arch, and which builds up a rib from a number of small pieces. At least, it is a system based on the legitimate use of cast iron for constructive purposes. The large segmental castings used in the Pimlico bridge, and the new bridge over the Trent at Nottingham, from Mr. M. O. Tarbotton's design, are excellent examples of the arched girder system. The Nottingham bridge has each rib made up of three I-shaped segments bolted together and united transversely; the span is 100 feet in each of the three openings, and the ribs are three feet deep at the springing, diminishing about six inches at the crown. We have yet to learn why engineers have abandoned the arched bridge for the wrought iron girder system, except that the latter is considered more economical, and better fitted for bearing tensile stress. Cast-iron bridges constructed as rigid arches, subject to compression and composed of small parts, have all the mechanical advantages of stone without some of its drawbacks, while artistically they can be made satisfactory erections.--_Building News_.

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SIR W. PALLISER.

We announce with regret the death of Major Sir William Palliser, which took place suddenly on February 4, 1882. Sir William had been suffering from disease of the heart for a considerable period, but we believe that no one anticipated that the end was so near. For some twenty years Sir William had devoted himself to the improvement of guns, projectiles, and armor. To him is attributed the invention of the chilled-headed projectiles which are known by his name. There seems to be no doubt that chilled projectiles were suggested at Woolwich Arsenal, and even made, before Sir William took the matter up, but there is excellent reason to believe that Sir William knew nothing of this, and that the invention was original with him; at all events, he, aided by the efforts of the foundry and the laboratory at Woolwich, brought these projectiles to perfection, and unless steel-faced armor defeat them they cannot be said to have as yet met their match. A most valuable invention of the deceased officer was the cut-down screw bolt for securing armor plates to ships and ports. It was at one time feared that no fastening could be got for armor plates, as on the impact of a shot the heads or the nuts always flew off the bolts. The fracture usually took place just at the point where the screw-thread terminated. Sir William adopted the bold course of actually weakening the bolt in the middle of its length by turning it down, so that the screw stands raised up instead of being cut into the bolt, and by this simple device he changed the whole face of affairs, and the expedient applied in other ways, such as by drilling holes longitudinally down bolts, has since been extensively adopted where great immunity from fracture is required.

It is, however, for the well-known converted gun that Sir William Palliser's name will be best remembered. When our smooth-bore cast iron guns became obsolete they were converted into the rifled compound guns by a process which led to their being known as Palliser guns. The plan was to bore out a cast iron gun and then to insert a wrought iron rifled barrel consisting of two tubes of coiled iron one inside the other. By the firing of a proof charge the wrought iron barrel was tightened inside the cast iron casing. By this means we obtained a converted gun at one-third of the cost of a new gun, and saved £140 on a 64-pounder and £210 on an 80-pounder. The process of conversion involved no change in the external shape of the gun, and it could, therefore, be replaced upon the carriage and platform to which it formerly belonged. The converted guns were placed upon wooden frigates and corvettes and upon the land fronts of fortifications, and were adopted for the defense of harbors. The many services Sir William Palliser had rendered to the science of artillery secured him the Companionship of the Bath in 1868, and knighthood in 1873. In 1874 he received a formal acknowledgment from the Lords of the Admiralty of the efficiency of his armor bolts for ironclad ships. His guns have been largely made in America and elsewhere abroad; and in 1875 he received from the King of Italy the Cross of Commander of the Crown of Italy. The youngest son of Lieutenant Colonel Wray Palliser--Waterford Militia--he was born in Dublin in 1830, and was therefore only fifty-two years of age. He was educated successively at Rugby, at Trinity College, Dublin, and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and, finally passing through the Staff College at Sandhurst, he entered the Rifle Brigade in 1855, and was transferred to the Eighteenth Hussars in 1858. He remained in the service to the end of 1871, when he retired by the sale of his commission. At the general election of 1880, Sir William Palliser was returned as a Conservative at the head of the poll for Taunton. In the House of Commons Sir William gave his chief attention to the scientific matters on which his authority was so generally recognized. Under the many disappointments and "unkind cuts," which fall to the lot of the most successful inventors, Sir William Palliser displayed qualities that won hearty admiration. The confidence with which he left his last well-known experiment to be carried out in his own absence almost under the directions of those whose professional opinions were adverse to his own, may be called chivalrous. His liberality and kindness of Colonel of the second Middlesex Artillery Volunteers had gained him the affection of the entire corps; in short, where it might naturally be expected that he should win respect, he won the love of those who were thrown with him.--_The Engineer_.

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THE CEDARS OF LEBANON.--Regulations were lately issued by Rustem Pasha for the guidance of travelers and others visiting the Cedars of Lebanon. These venerable trees have now been fenced in, but, with certain restrictions, they will continue to be accessible to all who wish to inspect them. In future no encampments will be permitted within the enclosure, except in the part marked out for that purpose by the keeper, nor may any cooking or camp fires be lighted near the trees.

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ON THE MECHANICAL PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

The object of these articles is to lay down in the simplest and most intelligible way the principles which are concerned in the mechanical production of electric currents. Every one knows now that electric lights are produced from powerful currents of electricity generated in a machine containing magnets and coils of wire, and driven by a steam engine, or gas engine, or water-wheel. But of the thousands who have heard that a steam engine can thus provide us with electric currents, how many are there who comprehend the action of the generator or dynamo-electric machine? How many, of engineers even, can explain where the electricity comes from, or how the mechanical power is converted into electrical energy, or what the magnetism of the iron magnets has to do with it all? Take any one of the dynamo-electric machines of the present date--the Siemens, the Gramme, the Brush, or the Edison machine--of each of these there exist descriptions excellent in their way, and sufficient for men already versed in the technicalities of electric science. But to those who have not served an apprenticeship to the technicalities--to all but professed electricians--the action of these machines is almost an unknown mystery. As, however, an understanding of the how and the why of the dynamo-electric machine or generator is the very A B C of electrical engineering, an exposition of the fundamental principles of the mechanical production of electric currents demands an important place in the current science of the day. It will be our endeavor to expound these principles in the plainest terms, while at the same time sacrificing nothing in point of scientific accuracy or of essential detail.

The modern dynamo-electric machine or generator may be regarded as a combination of iron bars and copper wires, certain parts of the machinery being fixed, while other parts are driven round by the application of mechanical forces. How the movement of copper wires and iron bars in this peculiar arrangement can generate electric currents is the point which we are proposing to make clear. Friction has nothing to do with the matter. The old-fashioned spark-producing "electrical machine" of our youthful days, in which a glass cylinder or disk was rotated by a handle while a rubber of silk pressed against it, has nothing in common with the dynamo-electric generator, except that in both something turns upon an axis as a grindstone or the barrel of a barrel-organ may do. In the modern "dynamo" we cannot help having friction at the bearings and contact pieces, it is true, but there should be no other friction. The moving coils of wire or "armatures" should rotate freely without touching the iron pole-pieces of the fixed portion of the machine. In fact friction would be fatal to the action of the "dynamo." How then does it act? We will proceed to explain without further delay. There are, however, three fundamental principles to be borne in mind if we would follow the explanation clearly from step to step, and these three principles must be laid down at the very outset.

1. The first principle is that the existence of the energy of electric currents, and also the energy of magnetic attractions, must be sought for not so much _in the wire_ that carries the current, or _in the bar_ of steel or iron that we call a magnet, as _in the space that surrounds_ the wire or the bar.

2. The second fundamental principle is that the electric current is, in one sense, quite as much a _magnetic_ fact as an electrical fact; and that the wire which carries a current through it has magnetic properties (so long as the current flows) and can attract bits of iron to itself as a steel magnet does.

3. The third principle to be borne in mind is that to do work of any kind, whether mechanical or electrical, requires the expenditure of energy to a certain amount. The steam engine cannot work without its coal, nor the laborer without his food; nor will a flame go on burning without its fuel of some kind or other. Neither can an electric current go on flowing, nor an electric light keep on shedding forth its beams, without a constant supply of energy from some source or other.

The last of these three principles, involving the relation of electric currents to the work they can do and to the energy expended in their production, will be treated of separately and later. Meantime we resume the task of showing how such currents can be produced mechanically, and how magnetism comes in in the process.

Surrounding every magnet there is a "field" or region in which the magnetic forces act. Any small magnet, such for example as a compass needle, when brought into this field of force, exhibits a tendency to set itself in a certain direction. It turns so as to point with its north pole toward the south pole of the magnet, and with its south pole toward the north pole of the magnet; or if it cannot do both these things at once, it takes up an intermediate position under the joint action of the separate forces and sets in along a certain line. Such lines of force run through the magnetic "field" from one pole of the magnet to the other in curves. If we define a line of force as being the line along which a free north-seeking magnetic pole would be urged, then these lines will run from the north pole of the magnet round to the south pole, and pass through the substance of the magnet itself. In Fig. 1 a rough sketch is given of the lines of magnetic force as they emerge from the poles of a bar magnet in tufts. The arrow heads show the direction in which a free north pole would move. These lines of forces are no fiction of the imagination, like the lines of latitude and longitude on the globe; they exist and can be rendered visible by the simplest of expedients. When iron filings are sprinkled upon a card or a sheet of glass below which a magnet is placed, the filings set themselves--especially if aided by a gentle tap--along the lines of force. Fig. 2 is a reproduction from nature of this very experiment, and surpasses any attempt to draw the lines of force artificially. It is impossible to magnetize a magnet without also in this fashion magnetizing the space surrounding the magnet; and the space thus filled with the lines of force possesses properties which ordinary unmagnetic space does not possess. These lines give us definite information about the magnetic condition of the space where they are. Their direction shows us the direction of the magnetic forces, and their density shows us the strength of the magnetic forces; for where the force is strongest there we have the lines of force most numerous and most strongly delineated in the scattered filings. To complete this first consideration of the magnetic field surrounding a magnet, we will take a look at Fig. 3, which reproduces the lines of filings as they settle in the field of force opposite the end of a bar magnet. The repulsion of the north pole of the magnet upon the north poles of other magnets would be, of course, in lines diverging radially from the magnet pole.

We will next consider the space surrounding a wire through which a current of electricity is flowing. This wire has magnetic properties so long as the current continues, and will, like a magnet, act on a compass needle. But the needle never tries to point toward the wire; its tendency is always to set itself broadside to the current and at right angles to it. The "field" of a current flowing up a straight wire is, in fact, not unlike the sketch shown in Fig. 4, where instead of tufted groups we have a sort of magnetic whirl to represent the lines of force. The lines of force of the galvanic field are, indeed, circles or curves which inclose the conducting wire, and their number is proportional to the strength of the current. In the figure, where the current is supposed to be flowing up the wire (shown by the dark arrows), the little arrows show the direction in which a free north pole would be urged round the wire;[1] a south pole would, of course, be urged round the wire in the contrary direction. Now, though when we look at the telegraph wires, or at any wire carrying a current of electricity, we cannot _see_ these whirls of magnetic force in the surrounding space, there is no doubt that they exist there, and that a great part of the energy spent in starting an electric current is spent in producing these magnetic whirls in the surrounding space. There is, however, one way of showing the existence of these lines of force; similar, indeed, to that adopted for showing the lines of force in the field surrounding a magnet. Pass the conducting wire up through a hole in a card or a plate of glass, as shown in Fig. 5, and sprinkle filings over the surface. They will, when the glass is gently tapped, arrange themselves in concentric circles, the smallest and innermost being the best defined because the magnetic force is strongest there. Fig 6 is an actual reproduction of the circular lines produced in this fashion by iron filings in the field of force surrounding an electric current.

[Footnote 1: It will not be out of place here to recall Ampere's ingenious rule for remembering the direction in which a current urges the pole of a magnetic needle. "Suppose a man swimming in the wire with the current, and that he turns so as to face the needle, then the north pole of the needle will be deflected toward his left hand."]

This experimental evidence must suffice to establish two of the three fundamental points stated at the outset, for they prove conclusively that the electric current may be treated as a magnetic phenomenon, and that both in the case of the pole of a magnet, and in that of the wire which carries a current, a portion, at any rate, of the energy of the magnetic forces exists outside the magnet or the current, and must be sought in the surrounding space.

Having grasped these two points, the next step in our argument is to establish the relation between the current and the magnet, and to show how one may produce the other.

If we wind a piece of copper wire into a helix or spiral, as in Fig. 7, and pass a current of electricity through it, the magnetic whirls in the surrounding space are modified, and the lines of force are no longer small circles wrapping round the conducting wire. For now the lines of force of adjacent strands of the coil merge into one another, and run continuously through the helix from one end to the other. Compare this figure with Fig. 1, and the similarity in the arrangement of the lines of force is obvious. The front end of the helix acts, in fact, like the north pole of a magnet, and the further end like the south pole. If a small bar of iron be now pushed into the interior of this helix, the lines of force will run through it and magnetize it, converting it into an _electro-magnet_. The magnetic "field" of such an electro-magnet is shown in Fig. 8, which is reproduced from the actual figure made by iron filings. To magnetize the iron bar of the electro-magnet as strongly as possible the wire should be coiled many times round, and the current should be as strong as possible. This mode of making an iron rod or bar into a powerful magnet is adopted in every dynamo-electric machine. For, as will be presently explained, very powerful magnets are required, and these magnets are most effectively made by sending the electric currents through spiral coils of wire wound (as in Fig. 8) round the bars that are to be made into magnets.

The reader will at this point probably be ready to jump to the conclusion that magnets and currents are alike surrounded by a sort of magnetic atmosphere, and such a view may help those to whom the subject is fresh to realize how such actions as we have been describing can be communicated from one magnet to another, or from a current to a magnet. Nevertheless such a conclusion would be both premature and inaccurate. Even in the most perfect vacuum these actions still go on, and the lines of force can still be traced. It is probably more correct to conclude that these magnetic actions are propagated through space not by special magnetic atmospheres, but by there being movements and pressures and tensions in the _ether_ which is believed to pervade all space as a very thin medium more attenuated than the lightest gas, and which when subjected to electro-magnetic forces assumes a peculiar state, and gives rise to the actions which have been detailed in the preceding paragraphs.

The next point to be studied is the magnetic property of a single loop of the wire through which an electric current flows. Fig. 9 represents a single voltaic cell containing the usual plates of zinc and copper dipping into acid to generate a current in the old-fashioned way. This current flows from the zinc plate through the liquid to the copper plate, and from thence it flows round the wire ring or circuit back to the zinc plate. Here the lines of magnetic force in the surrounding space are no longer only whirls like those drawn in Fig. 4 and 6, for they react on one another and become nearly parallel where they pass through the middle of the ring. The thick arrows show the direction of the electric current, the fine arrows are the lines of magnetic force, and show the paths along which a free north pole would be urged. All the front face, where the arrow-heads are, will be like the north pole of a magnet. All the other face of the ring will be like the south pole of a magnet. Our ring resembles a flat magnet, one face all north pole the other face all south pole. Such a magnet is sometimes called a "magnetic shell."[1]

[Footnote 1: The rule for telling which face of the magnetic shell (or of the loop circuit) is north and which south in its magnetic properties is the following: If as you look at the circuit the current is flowing in the same apparent direction as the hands of a clock move, then the face you are looking at is a south pole. If the current flows the opposite way round to the hands of a clock, then it is the north pole face that you are looking at.]

Since the circuit through which the current is flowing has these magnetic properties, it can attract other magnets or repel them according to circumstances.