Chapter 6

After you have made the bend it will require to be soldered, but before you can do this you must have the joint quite perfect and the edges true one with the other. A good bender will not require to touch his edges at all, but a novice will have to rasp and trim them up so that they come together. Having your edges true, soil them, take a gauge-hook, which may be described as a shave-hook with a gauge attached, and shave it about 1/8 in. each side; now solder it to look like the solder A, Fig. 45, which is done as follows: With some fine solder tack the joint at A D B, Fig. 44, put on some resin, and with a well-heated copper-bit drop some solder roughly on the point from B to A, then draw the bit over it again to float the solder, being especially careful not to let the joint open when coming off at A. Some plumbers think fit to begin here, but that is a matter of no importance. Do not forget that if your joint is not properly prepared, that is to say, true and even, it is sure to be a failure, and will have a "higgledy-piggledy" appearance. Some difference of opinion exists as to the best method of making these joints: one workman will make a good joint by drawing it while, on the other hand, another one will do it equally well by wiping it. Drawing will be fully explained in a part on pipe making. It may, however, be here mentioned that it is a method of making the joint by floating the solder along the joint with the ladle and plumbing-iron.

It is not uncommon for plumbers to make their bends with only one joint on the back.

PULLING UP BENDS.

In London, it is the favorite plan to make bends without cutting them. Fig. 46. It is done by taking a length of pipe, and, just where you require the bend, lay it (_with the seam at the side_) upon a pillow, made by tightly filling a sack with sand, wood shavings, or sawdust; have some shavings ready to hand and a good lath, also a short length of mandrel about 3 ft. long and about ½ in. smaller than the pipe, and a dummy as shown at A B, Fig. 56. Now, all being ready, put a few burning shavings into the throat of the bend, just to get heat enough to make it fizz, which you can judge by spitting on it. When this heat is acquired withdraw the fire, and let the laborer quickly place the end of the mandrel into the pipe, and pull the pipe up while you place a sack or anything else convenient across the throat of the bend, then pull the pipe up a little, just sufficient to dent it across the throat. Now, with a _hot_ dummy, dummy out the dent, until it is round like the other part of the pipe. Keep at this until your bend is made, occasionally turning the pipe or its side and giving it a sharp blow on the side with the soft or hornbeam dresser; this is when the sides run out as in Fig. 37. Never strike the back part of the bend from inside with the dummy, but work the lead from the throat to the back with a view to thickening the back.

SET-OFFS.

A set-off is nothing more than a double bend, as shown at Fig. 47, and made in much the same manner. D is the long end of the pipe. Always make this bend first and pull it up quite square, as it will be found to go a little back when pulling up the other bend; if you can make the two together so much the better, as you can then work the stuff from the throat of one bend into the back of the other. The different shaped dummies are also here shown: F a round-nosed dummy, G a double bent dummy, H a single bent, I straight, J hand-dummy, ABN a long bent dummy shown at Fig. 38.

BAD BENDS.

These can always be detected by examining them in their backs, as at Fig. 48; take a small dresser and tap the pipe a few times round ABD to test for the thickness. Strike it hard enough to just dent it; next strike the back part of the pipe, E, _with the same force_, and if it dents much more it is not an equally-made bend. I have seen some of these much-praised London-made bends that could be easily squeezed together by the pressure of the thumb and finger. N.B.--Care must be taken not to reduce or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend.

BAD FALLS IN BENDS.

The fall given in bending lead pipes should be considered of quite as much importance as making the bends of equal thickness especially for pipes, as shown in Fig. 49. In this Fig. you have a drawing of a bad bend. From A to B there is no fall whatever, as also from B to C; such bending is frequently done and fixed in and about London, which is not only more work for the plumber, but next to useless for soil-pipes. Fig. 50 shows how this bend should be made with a good fall from A to J, also from M to N; the method of making these bends requires no further explanation. R, P, and K are the turnpins for opening the ends, the method of which will be explained in a future paragraph on "Preparing for Fixing."

BENDS MADE INTO TRAPS OR RETARDERS.

It will sometimes be found requisite to retard the flow of water when running through soil or other pipes, or to direct it to another course, or even to form a trap in the length of pipe. This has been done in many ways, but Figs. 51 and 52 represent the method that I, after mature consideration, think most preferable. There is nothing new about this style of bending, as it has been long in vogue with provincial plumbers, but more especially in Kent. For many years it has had a run as a sink and slop closet-trap. Mr. Baldwin Latham, in his "Sanitary Engineering," says it was introduced and has been used for the Surrey and Kent sewers from about 1848.

I have also noticed many of these traps in the Sanitary Exhibition at South Kensington, made by Graham and Fleming, plumbers, who deserve a medal for their perseverance and skill, not only for the excellence of their bends, but also for some other branches of the trade, such as joint-wiping, etc., which is unquestionably the best work sent into this Exhibition--in fact, quite equal to that which was shown at the Exhibition of 1862. I shall treat further of these bends in an article on Fixing, in a future part.

BENDS MADE WITH THE "SNARLING DUMMY."

This is an American method of making lead bends. Fig. 53 shows a dummy made upon a bent steel rod, fixed into the bench. The method of working it is by first pulling up the bend, and to get out the dents, strike the rod of the snarling dummy, as shown at A, and the reaction gives a blow within the bend, throwing out the bend to any shape required. This method of working the dummy is also taken advantage of in working up embossed vases, etc.

_(To be continued)_

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THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.

The manufacture of fabrics having woofs of different colors requires the use of several shuttles and boxes containing the different colors at the extremity of the driver's travel, in which these boxes are adjusted alternately either by a rectilinear motion, or by a rotary one when the boxes are arranged upon a cylinder. The controlling mechanism of the shuttles by means of draught and tie machines constitutes, at present, the most perfect apparatus of this nature, because they allow of a choice of any shuttles whatever.

The apparatus constructed by the Grossenhainer Webstuhl und Maschinen Fabrik, of Grossenhain, and represented in the accompanying cut, is new as regards its general arrangement, although in its details it more or less resembles the analogous machines of Schönherr, Crompton, and Hartmann. The lifting of the shuttles is effected by two sectors, a1, a2, arranged on the two sides of the loom, and the rotary motion of which acts upon the box, c, by means of the lever, b, the box being caused to descend again by the spring, d. Parallel with the breast beam there is mounted an axle, e, and upon one of the extremities of this is fixed the sector, a1, while the other extremity carries two fixed disks, f1, f2, two loose disks, f3, f4, and the sector, a2, which is connected with the latter. The disks are kept in position by a brake, g. The pawls, h1 and h2, are supported on a lever, i, on a level with the disks, and are connected with the cam, l, by the spring, k. This cam revolves with the axle of the loom and thrusts the pawls against the disk. A draught and tie machine controls the action of the pawls on the disks in such a way that, by the revolution of the sectors, a1 and a2, the shuttle-boxes, I., II., III., are brought at the desired moment in the way of the driver. The pawls, h, are connected by wires with the bent levers, m, of the draught machine, which carry also the pawls, n. The upper position of the pawls, h, is limited by the direct resting of the levers, m, on the tappet, o, and the lower position by the resting of the pawls, n. The plates, p, held by the pattern, M, are set in motion horizontally by means of the eccentric, q, the crank, r, and the bent lever, s. The raised plates abut against the corresponding levers, m, and thus bring about the descent of the pawls, h, which are suspended from these levers. This position is maintained by the resting of the pawls, n, upon the tappet, o, until the lowering of the corresponding plate has set the pawl, n, free. The lever, m, then gives way to the action of the spring, t, and the pawl, h, rises again. The rotation of the cylinder which supports the design, M, is effected by the motion of the bent lever, s.

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INDUSTRIAL ART FOR WOMEN--CARPET DESIGNING.

A meeting of ladies was held in this city recently to consider the possibilities of industrial art in furnishing occupation for women.

Mrs. Florence E. Cory, Principal of the Woman's Institute of Technical Design, which was recently established in this city, advanced the proposition that whatever could be done by man in decorative art could be done as well by women, and she made an earnest plea to her own sex to fit themselves by proper training to engage in remunerative industrial work. Mrs. Cory enjoys the distinction of being the first woman who ever attempted to make designs for carpets in this country. She said that four years ago, when she came to this city, there was no school at which was taught any kind of design as applied to industrial purposes, except at Cooper Union, where design was taught theoretically but not practically. During the past year or two, however, in many branches of industrial design women have been pressing to the front, and last year eighteen ladies were graduated from the Boston Institute of Technology. Most of these ladies are now working as designers for various manufacturers, eight are in print factories, designing for chintz and calico, two have become designers for oil-cloths, one is designing for a carpet company, and one for a china factory. Carpet designing, said Mrs. Cory, is especially fitted for women's work. It opens a wide field to them that is light, pleasant, and remunerative. The demand for good carpet designs far exceeds the supply, and American manufactures are sending to Europe, particularly England and France, for hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of designs yearly. If the same quality of designs could be made in this country the manufacturers would gladly patronize home talent. One carpet firm alone pays $100,000 a year for its designing department, and of this sum several thousands of dollars go to foreign markets. More technical knowledge is required for carpet designing than for any other industrial design. It is necessary to have a fair knowledge of the looms, runnings of color, and manner of weaving. Hitherto this knowledge has been very difficult, if not impossible, for women to obtain. But now there are a few places where competent instruction in this branch of industrial art is given.

There are several kinds of work connected with this business that may be done at home by those who wish, and at very fair prices. The price of copying an ingrain design is from $3 to $6 per sheet. The price for an original design of the same size is from $10 to $20. For Brussels or tapestry sketches, which may be made at home, provided they are as good as the average sketch, the artists receive from $15 to $30. For moquettes, Axminsters, and the higher grades of carpets some artists are paid as high as $200. The average price, however, is from $25 to $100. These designs may all be made at home, carried to the manufacturer, submitted to his judgment, and if approved, will be purchased. After the purchase, if the manufacturer desires the artist to put the design upon the lines and the artist chooses to do so, the work may still be done at home, and the pay will range from $20 to $75 extra for each design so finished. The average length of time for making a design is, for ingrains, two per week; Brussels sketch, three per week; Brussels on the lines, one in two weeks; moquettes and Axminsters, one in two or three weeks, depending of course upon the elaborateness and size of the pattern. When the work is done at the designing-rooms, and the artist is required to give his or her time from 9 o'clock in the morning until 5 in the afternoon, the salaries run about as follows: For a good original ingrain designer, from $2,000 to $3,000 per year. A good Brussels and tapestry designer from $1,500 to $6,000 per year. Copyists and shaders, from $3 to $10 per week.

Mrs. R.A. Morse advocated the establishment of schools of industrial art, in which there would be special departments so that young girls might be trained to follow some practical calling. Mrs. Dr. French said that unskilled labor and incompetent workmen were the bane and disgrace of this country, and she thought that the field of industrial art was very inviting to women. She disparaged the custom of decorating chinaware and little fancy articles, and said that if the time thus wasted by women was applied to the study of practical designing those who persevered in the latter branch of industrial art might earn liberal wages. Miss Requa, of the Public School Department, explained that elementary lessons in drawing were taught in the public schools. Mme. Roch, who is thoroughly familiar with industrial and high art in both this country and in Europe, said that if the American people would apply themselves more carefully to the study of designing they could easily produce as good work as came from abroad. The beauties to be seen in American nature alone surpassed anything that she had ever witnessed in the old countries.

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PHOTOGRAPHY UPON CANVAS.

One of the most extensive establishments for the purpose is that of Messrs. Winter, in Vienna. They say to photographers in general: If you will send us a portrait, either negative or positive, we will produce you an enlargement on canvas worked up in monochrome. The success of their undertaking lies in the circumstance that they do not produce colored work--or, at any rate, it is exceptional on their part to do so--but devote their efforts to the production of an artistic portrait in brown or sepia. In this way they can make full use of the dark brown photograph itself; there is less necessity for tampering with the enlarged image, and natural blemishes in the model itself maybe softened and modified, without interfering much with the true lines of face and features. The monotone enlargements of Messrs. Winter, again, exquisitely as most of them are finished, do not appear to provoke the opposition of the painter; they do not cross his path, and hence he is more willing to do them justice. Many a would-be purchaser has been frightened out of his intention to buy an enlargement by the scornful utterance of an artist friend about "painted photographs," and in these days of cheap club portraits there is certainly much risk of good work falling into disrepute. But a well-finished portrait in monotone disarms the painter, and he is willing to concede that the picture has merit.

"We cannot use English canvas, or 'shirting,' as you call it," said one of our hosts; "it seems to contain so much fatty matter." The German material, on the other hand, would appear to be fit for photography as soon as it had been thoroughly worked in hot water and rinsed. Here, in this apartment, paved with red brick, we see several pieces of canvas drying. It is a large room, very clean, here and there a washing trough, and in one corner two or three large horizontal baths. The appearance is that of a wash-house, except that all the assistants are men, and not washerwomen; there is plenty of water everywhere, and the floor is well drained to allow of its running off. We are to be favored with a sight of the whole process, and this is the first operation.

Into one of the horizontal baths, measuring about 5 by 4 feet, is put the salting solution. It is a bath that can be rocked, or inclined in any direction, for its center rests upon a ball-and-socket joint. It is of _papier mâché_, the inside covered with white enamel. Formerly, only bromine salts were employed, but now the following formula is adopted:

Bromide of potassium................... 3 parts. Iodide of potassium.................... 1 part. Bromide of cadmium..................... 1 " Water................................ 240 parts.

Four assistants are required in the operation, and the same number when it comes to sensitizing and developing, all of which processes are commenced in the same way. The bath is tilted so that the liquid collects at one end, and near this end two assistants hold across the bath a stout glass rod; then the canvas is dipped into the liquid, and drawn out by two other assistants over the glass rod. In this way the canvas is thoroughly saturated, and, at the same time, drained of superfluous liquid.

The canvas is hung up to dry; but as sometime must elapse before this particular piece will be ready for sensitizing, we proceed with another canvas which is fit and proper for that process. The room, we should have mentioned, is provided with windows of yellow glass; but as there is plenty of light nevertheless, the fact hardly strikes one on entering. The sensitizing, with a solution of nitrate of silver, is conducted with a glass rod in the same way as before, the solution being thus compounded:

Nitrate of silver........................ 4 parts. Citric acid.............................. 1 part. Water.................................. 140 parts.

Again the canvas is dried, and then comes its exposure.

This is done in a room adjoining. We lift a curtain and enter a space that reminds one of the underground regions of a theater. There are curtained partitions and wooden structures on every hand; dark murky corners combined with brilliant illumination. Messrs. Winter use the electric light for enlarging, a lamp of Siemens' driven by a six-horse power engine. The lamp is outside the enlarging room, and three large lenses, or condensers, on three sides of the light, permit the making of three enlargements at one end at the same time. (See Fig.)

The condenser collects the rays, and these shine into a camera arrangement in which the small negative is contained. The enlarged image is then projected, magic lantern fashion, upon the screen, to which is fastened the sensitized canvas. The screen in question is upon a tramway--there are three tramways and three screens in all, as shown in our sketch--and for this reason it is easy to advance and retire the canvas, for the purpose of properly focusing it.

Even with the electric light now employed, it is necessary to expose a considerable time to secure a vigorous impression. From ten minutes to half an hour is the usual period, determined by the assistant, whose experienced eye is the only guide. We should estimate the distance of the cameras from the enlarging apparatus to be about fourteen or fifteen feet in the instance we saw, and when the canvas was taken down, a distinct outline of the image was visible on its surface.

By the way, we ought to mention that the canvas is in a decidedly limp state during these operations. It has just sufficient stiffness to keep smooth on the screen, and that is all; the treatment it has received appears to have imparted no increase of substance to it. Again it is brought into the red-brick washing apartment, and again treated in one of the white enameled baths as before. This time it is the developer that is contained in the bath, and the small limp tablecloth--for that is what it looks like--after being drawn over the glass rod, is put back into the bath, and the developing solution rocked to and fro over it. The whiteness of the bath lining assists one in forming a judgment of the image as it now gradually develops and grows stronger. Here is the formula of the developer:

Pyrogallic acid......................... 10 parts. Citric acid............................. 45 " Water...................................410 "

The developer--which, it will be noted, is very acid--is warmed before it is used, say to a temperature of 30° to 40° C.; nevertheless, the development does not proceed very quickly. As we watched, exactly eight minutes elapsed before Mr. Winter cried out sharply, "That will do." Immediately one of the assistants seizes the wet canvas, crumples it up without more ado, as if it were dirty linen, and takes it off to a wooden washing trough, where it is kneaded and washed in true washerwoman fashion. Water in plenty is sluiced over it, and after more vigorous manipulation still, it is passed from trough to trough until deemed sufficiently free from soluble salts to tone. The toning--done in the ordinary way with gold--removes any unpleasant redness the picture possesses, and then follows the fixing operation in hyposulphite. As canvas is more permeable than paper, these two last processes are quickly got through.

The final washing of the canvas is very thorough. Again it is treated with all the vigor with which a good laundry-maid attacks dirty linen, the canvas, in the end, being consigned to a regular washing-machine, in which it is systematically worked for some time.

When the canvas picture at last is finished, it presents a very rough appearance, by reason of the tiny fibers that stand erect all over the surface. To lay these, and also to improve the surface generally, the canvas is waxed, the fabric is stretched, and a semi-fluid mass rubbed into it, heat being used in the process, which not only gives brilliancy, but seems also to impart transparency to the shadows of the picture. The result is a pleasant finish, without vulgar glare or glaze, the high lights remaining beautifully pure and white.

Of course, the price of these canvas enlargements varies with the amount of artistic work subsequently put upon them; but the usual charge made by Messrs. Winter for a well-finished life-size portrait, three quarter length, is sixty florins, or about £5 sterling as the exchange now stands. Besides working for photographers, Messrs. Winter are reproducing a large number of classic paintings and cartoons by photography on canvas in this way (some of them almost absolutely untouched), and these, as may be supposed, are finding a very large sale among dealers. Such copies must necessarily be of considerable value to artists and collectors, and altogether it would seem that Messrs. Winter have hit upon a novel undertaking, which bids fair to make them a handsome return for the outlay (large as it undoubtedly has been) made upon their Vienna establishment.--_Photo. News._

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DETECTION OF STARCH SUGAR SIRUP MIXED WITH SUGAR-HOUSE MOLASSES.[1]

[Footnote 1: A Paper read before the American Chemical Society, September 2, 1881.]

BY P. CASAMAJOR.