Chapter 1

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 312

NEW YORK, DECEMBER 24, 1881.

Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XII., No. 312.

Scientific American established 1845

Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.

Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improved Fifteen Ton Traveling Crane. Designed for service in the construction of Port Alfred Harbor. South Africa. 3 figures. 4967

Improved Steam Boiler. 1 figure. 4968

The Elevated Railways of New York. 4968

Some of the Developments of Mechanical Engineering during the Last Half Century. British Association Paper. By SIR FREDERICK BRAMWELL. The steam engine.--Evaporative condenser.--Steam navigation.--Marine governors.--Light engines and boilers.--The Perkins system.--Ether engine.--Quicksilver engine.--Locomotive engines.--Brakes.--Motors.--Transmission of power.--Compressed air locomotives.--Hydraulic transmission of power.--Electric transmission of power.--The manufacture of iron and steel.-- Bridges.--Machine tools.--The sewing machine.--Agricultural machinery.--Printing machinery. 4968

Amateur Mechanics: Metal turning, 29 figures. Rotary cutters, 12 figures. Wood-working and lathe attachments, 9 figures. 4971

A New Method of Keeping Mechanical Drawings. 4978

Achard's Electric Brake for Railway Use. 2 figures. Plan and elevation. 4974

II. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electricity. What it is and what may be expected of it. By JACOB REESE. 4974

Electric Light Apparatus for Photographic Purposes. By A.J. JARMAN. 2 figures. 4976

Desruelles's Electric Lighter. 1 figure. 4976

Solenoid Underground Wires in Philadelphia. 4976

Dr. Herz's Telephonic Systems. 2 figures. 4976

Decision of the Congress of Electricians on the Units of Electric Measures. 4977

Secondary Batteries. By J. ROUSSE. 4977

III. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Domestic Sugar Production. 4980

M. Garnier's New Methods of Photo-Engraving. By Major J. WATERHOUSE.--Photogravure.--Photograph printing by vapor.--Atmography. 4982

Dangers of Pyrogallic Acid. By DR. T.L. PHIPSON. 4982

IV. ARCHITECTURE, ETC.--Artists' Homes, No. 12.--Wm. Emerson's house, Little Sutton, Chiswick.--Full page illustration and large size longitudinal section. 4978

Memorable English Houses. 4 figures.--Newton's house.-- Flaxman's house.--Canning's house.--Johnson's house. 4980

V. GEOGRAPHY.--Herald Island.--On the summit.--A midnight observation.--Plant life on Herald Island.--Inhabitants of the cliffs. 4980

VI. METALLURGY.--The Treatment of Quicksilver Ores in Spain. 4977

VII. AERONAUTICS.--The Balloon in Aeronautics. 4977

VIII. BIOGRAPHY.--Franz Liszt.--Large Portrait. 4981

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IMPROVED FIFTEEN TON CRANE.

The machine illustrated on first page has been constructed for Port Alfred Harbor, this being one of several harbors now being made by Sir J. Coode in South Africa. The pier for the construction of which the crane will be employed will consist of concrete blocks laid on what is known as the "overend system." The blocks, being brought on trucks direct from the block yard to within the sweep of the machine, are raised by it, swung round, and accurately set, the machine being continually traveled forward as the work advances. The bottom blocks are laid on bags of concrete previously deposited by the crane out of boxes with flap bottoms.

The present machine has been specially designed throughout, and represents the most complete development which block-setting plant has yet attained.

The most striking features of the crane are, the great range of all the motions, the large radius, and the method of providing for the latter by a horizontal jib suspended from a king-post. It was at first intended to have a straight inclined jib, and to alter the radius by pivoting this round its lower end, as is commonly done; it occurred, however, to Mr. Matthews, M.I.C.E., representing Sir J. Coode, that the plan eventually adopted would be in many ways preferable; the crane was therefore constructed by Messrs. Stothert & Pitt with this modification, and as far as can be judged from the trial with proof load, the arrangements can hardly be surpassed for quick and accurate block-setting. In cranes with "derricking" jibs it is necessary to connect the derrick and hoisting gears in such a manner that a variation of the radius may not affect the level of the load; this plan answers sufficiently well for ordinary purposes, but for block-setting it is requisite to have extreme accuracy in all the movements and great quickness in changing from one to another; the arrangements adopted in foundry cranes, in which all the motions are entirely independent of one another, seems therefore more suited for this kind of work. Other not inconsiderable advantages are also secured by the adoption of the foundry crane type, the amount of clear headway under the jib being much increased, and the difficulty avoided of making a jib sixty feet long sufficiently stiff without undue weight.

The principal dimensions of the crane are, total height of lift 46 feet, radius variable from 25 feet minimum to 45 feet maximum, height from rail to underside of jib 22 feet 2¾ inches, radius of tail to center of boiler 22 feet, working load 15 tons, proof load 19 tons.

The general arrangement consists of a truck on which is fixed a post, round which the crane revolves; the jib is supported midway by an inclined strut, above which is placed the king-post; the strut is curved round at the bottom and forms one piece with the side frames, which are carried right back as a tail to support the boiler and balance weight.

The hoisting gear consists of a double system of chains 13/16 in. in diameter placed side by side; each chain is anchored by an adjustable screw to the end of the jib, and, passing round the traveling carriage and down to the falling block, is taken along the jib over a sliding pulley which leads it on to the grooved barrel, 3 ft. 9 in. in diameter. In front of the barrel is placed an automatic winder which insures a proper coiling of the chain in the grooves. The motive power is derived from two cylinders 10 in. in diameter and 16 in. stroke, one being bolted to each side frame; these cylinders, which are provided with link motion and reversing gear, drive a steel crank shaft 2¾ in. in diameter; on this shaft is a steel sliding pinion which drives the barrel by a double purchase.

In the center of the crank-shaft is a large reversing friction clutch, which drives, through miter gear, a vertical shaft placed just in front of the post; from the latter the slewing, racking, and traveling motions are obtained.

The crane can be turned through a complete circle by a pinion gearing into a machine-moulded toothed ring bolted to the top of the truck; this ring is 11 ft. 4-7/8 in. in diameter, and contains 172 teeth 2½ in pitch. The slewing pinion is driven by intermediate gearing from the bottom of the vertical shaft mentioned above. For the turning motion two distinct sets of rollers are provided; these are carried by cross-girders placed between the side frames; one set runs against a cast-iron roller path bolted round the bottom of the post, and the other on the large horizontal roller path seen in the engraving. The latter is 14 ft. in diameter; it is built up of two deep curved channel irons with top and bottom plates forming a circular box girder, on the top of which a heavy flat rail is riveted, and the whole turned up in the lathe. The racking and traveling motions are driven from the top end of the vertical shaft; the racking gear consists of wire ropes attached to each side of the traveling carriage and coiled round a large barrel, the outer rope being brought over a pulley at the end of the jib. The rails for the carriage rest on rolled joints bolted to the underside of jib. This arrangement involves the use of an overhung traveling carriage, but enables the jib to be of a stiff box section, the side stiffness being further secured by wind ties.

The traveling motion is worked by a second vertical shaft, which passes down the center of the post, and by means of a cross shaft is geared to the front axle, from which four of the ground wheels are driven.

The post is octagonal, built up of plates ¾ in. thick; at the bottom end it is secured to the girders of the truck, and at the top is shrunk on to a large gudgeon 12 in. in diameter, which enters a casting fixed in the back end of the jib; on the top of the gudgeon are two steel disks on which an adjustable cap rests; by means of this and the ties to the tail and the lower end of the strut a proportion of the weight can be brought on to the post so as to relieve the roller path to any desired extent, and enable the crane to be revolved easily.

The truck is 24 ft. long and 16 ft. 4½ in. wide; it is constructed of longitudinal and transverse box girders 2 ft. 8 in. deep, and rests on two axles 6 in. in diameter; round these axles swivel the cast-iron bogie frames which carry the ground wheels. This arrangement was adopted because the crane has to travel up a gradient of 1 in 30, and the bogies enable it to take the incline better; they also distribute the weight more evenly on the wheels. The gauge of the rails is 15 ft, the wheels are 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and have heavy steel tires. The weight on each of the front wheels when running with the ballast, but no load, is about 16 tons. A powerful brake is applied to the wheels when descending the incline.

All the clutch levers, break treadle, and handles are brought together, so that one man has the crane under his entire control. An iron house, of which the framing only is shown, extends from the gearing right back to the boiler, forming a most spacious engine room and stokehole. A separate donkey engine is provided for feeding the boiler. The truck is furnished with legs under which packings can be wedged so as to relieve the load on the wheels when block-setting. The slings seen under the boiler are for hanging a concrete balance weight; this will weigh about 20 tons. The weight of the crane itself without load or ballast is about 80 tons. The crane was tested under steam with a load of 19 tons with the most satisfactory results; the whole machine appeared to be very rigid, an end often very difficult to obtain with portable wrought-iron structures and live loads. The result in the present case is probably greatly due to the careful workmanship, and to the fact that the sides and ends of the plates are planed throughout, so that the webs of the girders get a fair bearing on the top and bottom plates.

The crane showed itself to be very handy and quick in working, the speeds with 19 tons load, as actually timed at the trial, are: lifting 16 ft. per minute, racking motion 46 ft. per minute, slewing through a complete circle 90 ft. diameter, four minutes, equivalent to a speed at load of 60 ft. per minute. The crane was constructed by Messrs. Stothert & Pitt, of Bath, to the order of the Crown agents for the colonies, and we understand that the design and construction have given complete satisfaction to Sir J. Coode, the engineer to the harbor works, under whose supervision the crane was constructed.--_Engineering._

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IMPROVED STEAM-BOILER.

An improvement in steam-boilers, best understood by reference to the ordinary vertical form, has been introduced by Mr. T. Moy, London. Here the flue is central, and, as shown in the accompanying illustration, is crossed by a number of horizontal water-tubes at different heights. The ends of these tubes are embraced, within the steam chamber, by annular troughs. At the top domed part of the boiler are two annular chambers, the outer one being intended to receive the water upon entry from the feed-pump, and to contain any sedimentary deposit which may be formed. The water next passes, by the pipe, _a_, in the figure, into the inner chamber, surrounding the end of the uptake flue, whence it flows through the pipe, _b_, down into the first of the annular troughs above mentioned, and afterward overflows these troughs in succession until it reaches the bottom. Mr. Moy claims to have secured by this means a boiler of quick steaming capacity, together with a reduction in the weight of metal, and considerable economy of fuel. By the arrangement of the water in a number of shallow layers a large steaming surface is obtained, and there is a good steam space rendered available round the troughs. The water also enters at a point where it may abstract as much heat as possible from the furnace gases before they escape; and by the separation of the top domed chamber from the rest of the boiler the operation of scaling and cleaning is facilitated. The arrangement is also adapted to horizontal and multitubular boilers, to be fired with solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel.

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THE ELEVATED RAILWAYS OF NEW YORK.

But few persons who have not been in New York since the construction of the elevated roads, and witnessed their equipments and operations, can have any adequate idea of the extent of them, and of the people, machinery, and appurtenances required in working them. A recent inventory discloses the fact that there are 32 miles of roadway, 161 stations, 203 engines, and 612 cars, while 3,480 trains a day are run. There are 3,274 men employed on these roads, 309 of whom are engineers, 258 ticket agents, 231 conductors, 308 firemen, 395 guards or brakemen, 347 gatemen, 4 road inspectors, 106 porters, 33 carpenters, 27 painters, 69 car inspectors, 140 car cleaners, 40 lamp men, and 470 blacksmiths, boiler makers, and other mechanics employed on the structure and in the shops. Most of the ticket agents are telegraph operators, but there are 13 other operators employed. There are four double-track lines in operation. The aggregate daily receipts vary from $14,000 to $18,000; and as many as 274,023 passengers have been carried in one day. Engineers are paid from $3 to $3.50 per day; ticket agents, $1.75 to $2.25; conductors, $1.90 to $2.50; firemen, $1.90 to $2; guards or brakemen, $1.50 to $1.65; and gatemen, $1.20 to $1.50. The above items do not include machinists and other _employés_ in the workshops, or the general officers, clerks, etc.

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AMERICAN ANTIMONY.

A Baltimore dispatch informs us that a carload of antimony, ten tons in all, was lately received by C.L. Oudesluys & Co., from the southern part of Utah Territory, being the first antimony received in the East from the mines of that section. The antimony was mined about 140 miles from Salt Lake City. The ore is a sulphide, bluish gray in color, and yields from 60 to 65 per cent. of antimony. All antimony heretofore came from Great Britain and the island of Borneo, and paid an import duty of 10 per cent. ad valorem, and there is also some from Sonora. It is believed that with proper rail facilities to the mines of the West there will be no need of importations.

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SOME OF THE DEVELOPMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DURING THE LAST HALF-CENTURY.[1]

[Footnote 1: Paper read in Section G (Mechanical) of the British Association.]

By SIR FREDERICK BRAMWELL, V.P. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., Chairman of the Council of the Society of Arts.

I am quite sure the section will agree with me in thinking it was very fortunate for us, and for science generally, that our president refrained from occupying the time of the section by a retrospect, and devoted himself, in that lucid and clear address with which he favored us, to the consideration of certain scientific matters connected with engineering, and to the foreshadowing of the directions in which he believes it possible that further improvements may be sought for. But I think it is desirable that some one should give to this section a record, even although it must be but a brief and an imperfect one, of certain of the improvements that have been made, and of some of the progress that has taken place, during the last fifty years, in the practical application of mechanical science, with which science and its applications our section is particularly connected. I regret to say that, like most of the gentlemen who sat on this platform yesterday, who, I think, were, without exception, past presidents of the section, I am old enough to give this record from personal experience. Fifty years ago I had not the honor of being a member, nor should I, it is true, have been eligible for membership of the association; but I was at that time vigorously making models of steam-engines, to the great annoyance of the household in which I lived, and was looking forward to the day when I should be old enough to be apprenticed to an engineer. Without further preface, I will briefly allude to some of the principal developments of a few of the branches of engineering. I am well aware that many branches will be left unnoticed; but I trust that the omissions I may make will be remedied by those present who may speak upon the subject after me.

I will begin by alluding to

THE STEAM-ENGINE EMPLOYED FOR MANUFACTURING PURPOSES.

In 1831, the steam-engine for these purposes was commonly the condensing beam engine, and was supplied with steam from boilers, known, from their shape, as wagon boilers; this shape appears to have been chosen rather for the convenience of the sweeps, who periodically went through the flues to remove the soot consequent on the imperfect combustion, than for the purpose of withstanding any internal pressure of steam. The necessary consequence was, that the manufacturing engines of those days were compelled to work with steam of from only 3½ lb. to 5 lb. per square inch of pressure above atmosphere. The piston speed rarely exceeded 250 feet per minute, and as a result of the feeble pressure, and of the low rate of speed, very large cylinders indeed were needed relatively to the power obtained. The consumption of fuel was heavy, being commonly from 7 lb. to 10 lb. per gross indicated horsepower per hour. The governing of the engine was done by pendulum governors, revolving slowly, and not calculated to exert any greater effort than that of raising the balls at the end of the pendulum arms, thus being, as will be readily seen, very inefficient regulators. The connection of the parts of the engine between themselves was derived from the foundation upon which the engine was supported. Incident to the low piston speed was slowness of revolution, rendering necessary heavy fly wheels, to obtain even an approach to practical uniformity of rotation, and frequently rendering necessary also heavy trains of toothed gearing, to bring up the speed from that of the revolutions of the engine to that of the machinery it was intended to drive.

In 1881, the boilers are almost invariably cylindrical, and are very commonly internally fired, either by one flue or by two; we owe it to the late Sir William Fairbairn, President of the British Association in 1861, that the danger, which at one time existed, of the collapse of these fire flues, has been entirely removed by his application of circumferential bands. Nowadays there are, as we know, modifications of Sir William Fairbairn's bands, but by means of his bands, or by modifications thereof, all internally flued boilers are so strengthened that the risk of a collapse of the flue is at an end. Boilers of this kind are well calculated to furnish--and commonly do furnish--steam of from 40 lb. to 80 lb. pressure above atmosphere.

The piston speed is now very generally 400 feet or more, so that, notwithstanding that there is usually a liberal expansion, the mean pressure upon the piston is increased, and this, coupled with its increased speed, enables much more power to be obtained from a given size of cylinder than was formerly obtainable. The revolutions of the engine now are as many as from 60 to 200 per minute, and thus, with far lighter fly-wheels, uniformity of rotation is much more nearly attained.

THE EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER.

Moreover, all the parts of the engine are self-contained; they no longer depend upon the foundation, and in many cases the condensing is effected either by surface condensers, or, where there is not sufficient water, the condensation is, in a few instances, effected by the evaporative condenser--a condenser which, I am sorry to say, is not generally known, and is therefore but seldom used, although its existence has been nearly as long as that of the association. Notwithstanding the length of time during which the evaporative condenser has been known to some engineers, it is a common thing to hear persons say, when you ask them if they are using a condensing engine, "I can not use it; I have not water enough." A very sufficient answer indeed, if an injection condenser or an ordinary surface condenser constituted the sole means by which a vacuous condition might be obtained; but a very insufficient answer, having regard to the existence of the evaporative condenser, as by its means, whenever there is water enough for the feed of a non condensing engine, there is enough to condense, and to produce a good vacuum.

The evaporative condenser simply consists of a series of pipes, in which is the steam to be condensed, and over which the water is allowed to fall in a continuous rain. By this arrangement there is evaporated from the outside of the condenser a weight of water which goes away in a cloud of vapor, and is nearly equal to that which is condensed, and is returned as feed into the boiler. The same water is pumped up and used outside the condenser, over and over, needing no more to supply the waste than would be needed as feed water. Although this condenser has, as I have said, been in use for thirty or forty years, one still sees engines working without condensation at all, or with waterworks water, purchased at a great cost, and to the detriment of other consumers who want it for ordinary domestic purposes; or one sees large condensing ponds made, in which the injection water is stored to be used over and over again, and frequently (especially toward the end of the week) in so tepid a state as to be unfit for its purpose. The governing is now done by means of quick-running governors, which have power enough in them to raise not merely the weight of the pendulum ball, which is now small, but a very heavy weight, and in this way the governing is extremely effective. I propose to say no more, looking at the magnitude of the whole of my subject, upon the engine used for manufacturing purposes, but rather to turn at once to those employed for other objects.

STEAM NAVIGATION.