Chapter 4

Potash soaps are generally superior to soda soaps for most purposes, but more especially in washing wool and woolen goods. The difference between the use of a potash and a soda soap for these purposes is very marked. Potash lubricates the fiber of the wool, renders it soft and silky, and to a certain extent bleaches it; soda, on the other hand, has a tendency to turn wool a yellow color, and renders the fiber hard and brittle. It cannot be too strongly insisted upon, therefore, that nothing but a potash soap (or some form of potash in preference to soda if an alkali alone is employed) should be used in washing wool in any form--either manufactured or unmanufactured. This is fully borne out by nature, who invariably assimilates the most appropriate substances. Wool when growing in its natural state is lubricated and protected by a sticky substance called "grease" or "suinte;" this consists to the extent of nearly half its weight of carbonate of potash, hardly a trace of soda being present. It is very evident, therefore, that potash must be more suitable for washing wool than soda, as the teaching of nature is always correct.

There are certain prejudices against the use of potash soap, which have, to a great extent, prevented its more extensive use. Many consumers of soap fancy that because a potash soap is soft it necessarily must contain more water than a soda soap; this, however, is quite an erroneous notion. A potash soap is soft, because it is the nature of all potash soaps to be so, just in the same way that on the other hand all soda soaps are hard. As an actual fact a good potash soap contains less water than many quite hard soda soaps that are now in the market. Another reason is that soapmakers have had every interest in using soda in preference to potash--particularly when latterly soda has been so cheap.

Potash not only is a more expensive alkali, but its combining equivalent is greatly against it as compared with soda; that is to say, that thirty-one parts of actual or anhydrous soda will saponify as much tallow or oil as forty-seven parts of anhydrous potash. It will be evident, therefore, that the use of potash instead of soda is decidedly more advantageous to the soapboiler, and more particularly in the present age, when the demand is for cheap articles, often quite without regard to the quality or purpose for which they are to be used. As far as consumers are concerned, this has been a mistake. Potash soap, though it may cost more, is in most cases actually the most economical. Soap is never used in exact chemical equivalents, but an excess is always taken. Potash soap is much more soluble than a soda soap; it therefore penetrates the fiber, and consequently removes dirt and grease much more quickly. Notwithstanding, also, that its chemical combining equivalent is greater than that of soda, it is, nevertheless, the strongest base, and always combines with any substance in preference to soda. For these reasons--probably combined also with the fact that in the whole realm of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, to which all textile fabrics belong, potash is more naturally assimilated than soda--a smaller quantity of potash soap will do more practical work than a larger quantity of soda soap.

There are other reasons why potash soaps have not been used; originally soft soap was made either with fish oil or olive oil. Fish oil is objectionable, as the strong smell imparted to the soap renders it unfit for many finishing purposes. Nothing can be better than olive oil soap, but it is a costly article, and only can be used for finer purposes. There are now, however, many of the seed oils that are much cheaper. Linseed, rape seed, and cotton seed all produce a good soap. Cotton seed oil is particularly suitable for the purpose; the manufacture of this oil during the last few years has been brought to great perfection, and the cost is now much less than that of tallow or of any other seed oil. It is now difficult to distinguish a well refined cotton seed oil from olive oil; it is therefore in every way suitable for making soft soap. One of the chief causes, however, why potash soap has not been more generally made is that a convenient form of potash has been unobtainable. For many years the only source of potash was from the ashes of burnt trees. These ashes are collected, mixed with lime, lixiviated, and the resulting lye boiled down. The result is a very impure form of potash, also of a very variable composition, depending upon the trees used for the purpose. Canada has been the principal source of supply of this form of potash; hence the commercial name of Montreal potashes. The classification of "firsts," "seconds," and "thirds" is from the inspection at the warehouse there; this, however, is exceedingly superficial, the ashes being simply tested for their _alkaline_ strength, with no discrimination between potash and soda, which is a difficult and delicate chemical test. Soda being now far cheaper than potash, and also the alkaline equivalent, as previously explained, being greatly in favor of soda, there has been every inducement to "enterprising" producers of ashes to adulterate them with soda, which, in many cases, has been largely done. Another source of potash has been beetroot ashes, very similar to wood ashes, and also German carbonate of potash, which latter about corresponds to a common soda ash, as compared with caustic soda; with these articles, a tedious boiling process, very similar to the old process for the production of hard soap, had to be adopted, the ashes, or carbonate of potash, previously being dissolved and causticized with lime by the soap maker. The production of a first-class soft soap was also a very difficult operation, as the impurities and soda contained varied considerably, often causing the "boil" to go wrong and give considerable trouble to the soapboiler.

During the last two years, however, caustic potash has been introduced, that manufactured by the Greenbank Alkali Co., of St. Helens, being very nearly pure. With this article there is no difficulty in producing a pure potash soap, either for wool scouring, fulling, or sizing, by a cold process very similar to that described for the production of hard soda soap with pure powdered caustic soda.

The following directions will produce an excellent soap for wool scouring: Fifty pounds of Greenbank pure caustic potash are put into eight gallons of soft water; the potash dissolves immediately, heating the water. This lye is allowed to cool, and then slowly added, with continual mixing, to 20 gallons of cotton seed oil, mixed with 20 pounds of melted tallow, the whole being brought to a temperature of about 90° F. After stirring for some minutes, so as to completely combine the lye and oil, the mixture is left for two days in a warm place, when a slow and gradual saponification of the mass takes place. If when examined the oil and lye are then found not completely combined, the stiff soap is again stirred and left two days, when the saponification will be found complete, the result being the formation of about 330 pounds of very stiff potash soap, each pound being equal to about two pounds of the ordinary "fig" soap sold. The requisite quantity is thrown into the scouring vat with about five per cent of its weight of refined pearl ash to increase the alkali present, the weight depending somewhat upon the kind of wool washed on purpose for which the soap is required. If the wool is very dirty or greasy, rather a stronger soap is sometimes advisable. This can easily be attained by reducing the quantity of oil used to 18 gallons.

The advantages to be gained by the wool scourer or other consumer making his own potash soap are that a pure, uniform article can always be thus produced at a less cost than that at which the soap can be bought. Potash soap, like soda soap now sold, is much adulterated, in addition to all the impurities originally contained in the potash used, and which, unlike soda soap, cannot be separated by any salting process. Many other adulterations are added to increase the weight and cheapen the cost. Silicate of potash, resin, and potato flour are all more or less employed for this purpose, to the gain of the soap maker and at the expense of the consumer.

The production of potash soap for fulling and sizing, and the most suitable oils and tallow for the production of the various qualities required for these purposes, must be reserved for the next issue.--_Textile Manufacturer._

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THE PREPARATION OF PERFUME POMADES.

We have, on a previous occasion, described the process of "maceration" or "enfleurage," that is, the impregnation of purified fat with the aroma of certain scented flowers which do not yield any essential oil in paying quantities. At present we wish to describe an apparatus which is used in several large establishments in Europe for obtaining such products on the large scale and within as short a time as possible. The drawing gives the idea of the general arrangement of the parts rather than the actual appearance of a working apparatus, for the latter will have to vary according to the conveniences and interior arrangements of the factory.[1]

[Footnote 1: Our illustration has been taken from C. Hofmann, "Chemisch-technisches Universal-Receptbuch," 8vo, Berlin, 1879, p. 207.]

A series of frames with wire-sieve bottoms are charged with a layer of fat in form of fine curly threads, obtained by pressing or rubbing the fat through a finely-perforated sieve. The frames are then placed one on top of the other, and to make the connection between them air-tight, pressed together in a screw press. A reservoir, E, is charged with a suitable quantity of the flowers, etc., and tightly closed with the cover, after which the bellows are set into motion by any power most convenient. Scented air is thereby drawn from the reservoir, E, through the pipe, G B, toward the stack of frames containing the finely divided fat, which latter absorbs the aroma, while the nearly deodorized air is sent back to the reservoir by the pipe, D, to be freshly charged and again sent on its circuit. This apparatus is said to facilitate the turning out of nearly twenty times the amount of pomade for the same number of frames and the same time, as the old process of "enfleurage." It might be called the "ensoufflage" process.--_New Remedies._

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ORGANIC MATTER IN SEA-WATER.

At a recent meeting of the London Chemical Society, Mr. W. Jago read a paper "On the Organic Matter in Sea-water." On p. 133 of the "Sixth Report of the Rivers Commission," it is stated that the proportion of organic elements in sea-water varies between such wide limits in different samples as to suggest that much of the organic matter consists of living organisms, so minute and gelatinous as to pass readily through the best filters. At the suggestion of Dr. Frankland, the author has investigated this subject. The water was collected in mid-channel between Newhaven and Dieppe by the engineers of the London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway in stoppered glass carboys. The author has used the combustion method, the albuminoid ammonia, and in some cases the oxygen process of Prof. Tidy. To determine how the various methods of water-analysis were effected by a change of the organic matter from organic compounds in solution to organisms in suspension, some experiments were made with hay-infusion. The results confirm those of Kingzett (_Chem. Soc. Journ_., 1880, 15). the oxygen required first rising and then diminishing. The author concludes that the organic matter of sea-water is much more capable of resisting oxidizing agents than that present in ordinary fresh waters, and that the organic matter in sea-water is probably organized and alive.

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BACTERIA LIFE.

W. M. Hamlet, in a paper before the London Chemical Society, said: Flasks similar to those of Pasteur ("Etudes sur la Biere," p. 81), holding about ¼ liter, were used. The liquids employed were Pasteur's fluid with sugar, beef-tea, hay infusion, urine, brewers' wort, and extract of meat. Each flask was about half filled, and boiled for ten minutes, whereby all previously existing life was destroyed. The flask was then allowed to cool, the entering air being filtered through a plug of glass wool or asbestos. The flask was then inoculated with a small quantity of previously cultivated hay solution or Pasteur's fluid. Hydrogen, oxygen, carbonic oxide, marsh-gas, nitrogen, and sulphureted hydrogen, were without effect on the bacteria. Chlorine and hydric peroxide (about 7 per cent, of a 5 vol. solution) were fatal to bacteria. The action of various salts and organic acids in 5 per cent, solution was tried. Many, including potash, soda, potassic bisulphite, sodic hyposulphite, potassic chlorate, potassic permanganate, oxalic acid, acetic acid, glycerin, laudanum, and alcohol, were without effect on the bacterial life. Others--the alums, ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride, magnesic and aluminic chlorides, bleaching powder, camphor, salicylic acid, chloroform, creosote, and carbolic acid--decidedly arrested the development of bacteria. The author has made a more extended examination of the action of chloroform, especially as regards the statement of Müntz, that bacteria cannot exist in the presence of 2½ per cent, of chloroform, which substance is therefore useful in distinguishing physiological from chemical ferments. The author concludes that amounts of chloroform, phenol, and creosote, varying from ¼ to 3 per cent., do not destroy bacteria, although their functional activity is decidedly arrested while in contact with these reagents. To use the author's words, bacteria may be pickled in creosote and carbolic acid without being deprived of their vitality. The author concludes that the substances which destroy bacteria are those which are capable of exerting an immediate and powerful oxidizing action, and that it is active oxygen, whether from the action of chlorine, ozone, or peroxide of hydrogen, which must be regarded as the greatest known enemy to bacteria.

Mr. Hamlet, in replying to some remarks of Messrs. Kingzett and Williams, said that in all cases the solution which he had used had been completely sterilized by exposure to a temperature of 105° for ten minutes. The India-rubber tubing he had used was steamed. Carbolic acid solution must contain at least 5 per cent, of carbolic acid to be fatal to bacteria. He was quite aware of the importance of distinguishing between the action of the substances on various kinds of bacteria, and was quite prepared to admit that a treatment which would be fatal to one kind of bacterium might not injure another.

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ON THE COMPOSITION OF ELEPHANTS' MILK.

[Footnote: Read before the American Chemical Society, June 3,1881.]

By CHAS. A. DOREMUS, M.D., Ph.D.

Noticing the recent advertisements in the city regarding the "Baby Elephant," it occurred to me that perhaps no analysis of the milk of this species of the mammalia had been recorded. This I found corroborated, for though the milk of many animals had been subjected to analysis, no opportunity had ever presented itself to obtain elephants' milk.

Through the courtesy of Jas. A. Bailey I was enabled to procure samples of the milk on several occasions.

On March 10, 1880, the elephant Hebe gave birth to the female calf America. Hebe is now twenty eight years old, and the father of the calf, Mandrie, thirty-two. Since the birth of the "Baby," the mother has been in excellent health, except during about ten days, when she suffered from a slight indisposition, which soon left her.

When born the calf weighed 213½ lbs., and in April, 1881, weighed 900 lbs. A very fair year's growth on a milk diet. At the time I procured the samples both mother and calf were in fine health.

To obtain the milk was a matter of some difficulty. The calf was constantly sucking, nursing two or three times an hour, morning, noon, and night. The milk could be drawn from either of the two teats, but only in small quantity. The mother gave the fluid freely enough, apparently, to her infant, but sparingly to inquisitive man, so the ruse had to be resorted to of milking one teat while the calf was at the other.

When I first examined the specimens they seemed watery, but to my surprise, on allowing the milk to stand, I could not help wondering at the large percentage of cream.

The following represents approximately the daily diet of the mother:

Three pecks of oats, one bucket bran mash, five or six loaves of bread, half a bushel of roots (potatoes, etc.), fifty to seventy-five pounds of hay, and forty gallons of water.

Elephants eat continually, little at a time, to be sure, but are constantly picking. This habit is also observable in the way the calf nurses. The first specimen of milk was procured on the morning of April 5, the second on the 9th, and the third on the 10th.

The last exceeded the others in quantity, and is therefore the fairest of the three. It took several milkings to get even these, for the calf would begin to nurse, then stop, and when she stopped the flow of milk did also.

I was assured by Mr. Cross and the keeper, Mr. Copeland, that the milk I obtained had all the appearances of that drawn at various times since the birth of the calf. Mr. Cross, when in Boston, compared the milk with that from an Alderney cow, and found the volume of cream greater.

I endeavored to have the calf kept away from the mother for some hours, but could not, since she is allowed her freedom, as she worries under restraint, and besides, has never been taken from the mother. The calf picked at oats and hay, but was dependent on the mother for nourishment.

It would have been a matter of great satisfaction to me had I been able to obtain a larger quantity of the milk, or to have gained even an approximate knowledge of the daily yield, but was obliged to content myself with what I could get. By comparing several samples, however, a just conclusion regarding the quality was found. The analyses of the samples gave the following results:

No. I. II. III. April 5, April 9, April 10, Morning. Noon. Morning.

Quantity, 19 cc. 36 cc. 72 cc. Cream, 52-4, vol.% 58 62 Reaction, Neutral. Slightly alkaline. Slightly acid. Sp.gr., ---- ---- 1023.7

In 100 parts by weight. Water............67.567 69.286 66.697 Solids...........32.433 30.714 33.303 Fat..............17.546 19.095 22.070 Solids not fat...14.887 11.619 11.233 Casein...........14.236 3.694 3.212 Sugar............14.236 7.267 7.392 Ash.............. 0.651 0.658 0.629

Ten grammes were taken for analysis, and in No. III. duplicates were made.

It is evident from these analyses that the milk approaches the composition of cream, yet it did not have the consistency of ordinary cream--as cream even rose upon it. Under the microscope the globules presented a very perfect outline, and were beautifully even in size and very transparent.

The cream rose quickly, leaving a layer of bluish tinge below. The milk was pleasant in flavor and odor, and very superior in these respects to that of many animals such as goats or camels, and in quality equal to that of cows. Nor did the milk emit any rank odor on heating.

When ten grammes were evaporated to dryness, the last portions of water were hard to remove, as the residue fairly floated with oil. Only by long-continued application of heat, and in analysis III. over sulphuric acid in vacuo, could a constant weight be obtained.

I would have used sand in the drying, or Baumhauer's method of fat extraction, but for the small quantity of milk at my disposal and from fear of loss of fat in the latter case.

The fat in III. was determined by extracting the dried residue and also with 20 c. c. of milk by adding alkali and shaking with ether, removing and evaporating the ether and weighing the fat.

As is shown in the table the sp. gr. is very low, though the solids and solids not fat are great. The ash, casein, and sugar are in about the usual proportion. The weight of casein, it is true, is but half that of the sugar. The milk indeed shows an unusually great preponderance of the non-nitrogenized elements, and this seems to correspond with the wants of the animal, since fatty tissues are greatly developed in elephants. According to Mr. Cross, who has had large experience with these animals, they are fatter in the wild state than in bondage. These specimens must appear as exceptional; they may be considered by some as "strippings;" but as against such a view we have the recurrence in each sample of the same characteristics in the milk and a near correspondence in the composition. As may be seen from the subjoined analyses, given by v. Gorup Besanez,[1] the milk belongs to the class of which woman's and mare's milk are members, especially as regards the proportion of the non-nitrogenized to the nitrogenized elements.

[Footnote 1: "Lehrhuch der Physiologischen Chemie," pp. 423 and 424.]

Constituents. Woman. Cow. Goat. Ewe. Ass. Mare.

Water. 86.271 84.28 86.85 83.30 89.01 90.45 Solids. 13.729 15.72 13.52 16.60 10.99 9.55 Fat. 5.370 5.47 4.34 6.05 1.85 1.31 Casein. \ 3.57 2.53 \ \ \ 2.950 5.73 3.57 2.53 Albumen. / 0.78 1.26 / / / Milk Sugar. 5.136 4.34 3.78 3.96 \ 5.42 5.05 Ash. 0.223 0.63 0.65 0.68 / 0.29

Constituents. Buffalo. Camel. Sow. Hippo- Elephant. potamus.

Water. 80.640 86.34 81.80 90.43 66.697 Solids. 19.360 13.66 18.20 9.57 33.308 Fat. 8.450 2.90 6.00 4.51 22.070 Casein. \ \ \ 4.40 \ 4.247 3.67 5.30 3.212 Albumen. / / / / Milk Sugar. 4.518 5.78 6.07 [1] 7.392 Ash. 0.845 0.66 0.83 0.11 0.629

[Footnote 1: Milk Sugar included.]

It may be remarked that though approaching the composition of cream it still differs enough to require it to be considered milk.

Perhaps if a larger quantity of the milk could be collected, it would have a more watery character, and approximate more nearly to other milks in that respect. However this may be the quality of the fat deserves some attention.

The fat has a light yellow color, resembling olive oil, is very pleasant in odor and taste, is liquid at common temperatures, but solidifies at 18° C. or 64° F.

The cow must yield a considerable quantity of milk, since the growth of the calf has been constant, and at the time these samples were milked the mother gave as freely to her babe as she ever had since its birth. The calf having gained seven to eight hundred pounds on a milk diet in one year, it is presumable that it had no lack of nourishment.

In size the "Baby" compared equally with other elephants in the same menagerie, who were known to be four and five years old.