Chapter 8

Give the reason for mixing the sugar, corn-starch, and hot milk of Blanc Mange as directed.

For how long a time after placing in the double boiler is it necessary to stir the corn-starch, sugar, and hot milk mixture?

Milk, especially a milk and starchy mixture, scorches readily (see _Scalding Milk_). From this explain why Blanc Mange is cooked entirely over boiling water, and not over the flame and then in a double boiler, as cereals.

Why is the flavoring not added while the mixture is cooking (see _Flavoring Extracts_)?

What is the price per package of corn-starch?

How much does a package of corn-starch weigh and measure?

Which material--flour or corn-starch--is the cheaper to use for thickening?

How many persons does the quantity of Blanc Mange above serve?

LESSON XXV

TOAST: DIGESTION OF STARCH

EXPERIMENT 26: CHANGE OF STARCH INTO DEXTRIN.--Place a teaspoonful of flour in a frying pan and heat slowly until it becomes _very dark brown_ and _uniform_ in color. Put a little of the browned flour into a test tube, add water, then shake. Add a few drops of iodine. What indicates the presence of starch? Is starch present?

The starch has been changed to dextrin. Dextrin gives a purple (reddish blue) color when treated with iodine.

EXPERIMENT 27: THE SOLUBILITY OF DEXTRIN.--Pour the remainder of the browned flour from Experiment 26 into a test tube. Add water and shake. Pour through filter paper [Footnote 26: Liquids pass through filter paper, but solids do not. Hence if a mixture of solid and liquid is poured upon filter paper, the liquid passes through, but the solid remains on the paper.] into another test tube (see Figure 30). Notice the color of the liquid that has been filtered. Add a few drops of iodine to the filtered liquid. Is dextrin present? Is dextrin soluble in water? [Illustration: Figure 30.--Method of Folding Filter Paper.]

From these experiments, we find that dry heat has changed insoluble starch into a soluble substance called _dextrin_. Dextrin is found in small amounts in the crust of bread and in toast.

DIGESTION OF STARCH.--It was found in a previous lesson (Lesson XVI) that sugar is entirely soluble in water, and since digestion and solution are closely related, the digestion of some sugar is simple. Starch was found to be insoluble in cold water and only semi-soluble in hot water. In the process of digestion it would seem that some change must take place in the starch to make it soluble. Such a change _does_ take place; starch is changed into a soluble carbohydrate or a sugar before it is digested.

Substances called _enzymes_ which are in the saliva of the mouth [Footnote 27: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth and intestines, respectively.] and in the digestive juices of the intestines [Footnote 28: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth and intestines, respectively.] cause this change. To show that this change takes place to some extent in the mouth, try the following experiments:

EXPERIMENT 28: STARCH IN CRACKER.--Test a bit of cracker with iodine for starch. What indicates the presence of starch? Does the cracker contain starch?

EXPERIMENT 29: ACTION OF SALIVA UPON STARCH.--Thoroughly chew a bit of cracker. As you chew the cracker, note that it becomes sweeter in flavor. Remove from the mouth, and place upon a piece of paper. Test it with iodine. A purple (reddish blue) color indicates a soluble carbohydrate (see Experiment 27). What substance does the masticated cracker contain? Explain the change that has taken place in the cracker by mastication.

TOAST.--Bread is properly toasted when it is dried out thoroughly and then browned on the outside. Both the crumb and the crust of the toast are thus made crisp. Crisp toast crumbles during mastication.

Fresh bread contains much moisture. When it is toasted quickly, the moisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toast is very soft. This kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as fresh bread. Instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion, it remains in a solid mass and is digested with difficulty.

Give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce the desired kind of toast.

CREAM TOAST

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour 2 cupfuls milk or cream 6 to 8 slices of toast

Heat the fat; when it bubbles, add the flour and salt, mixing thoroughly. Add a small portion of the milk. Heat and stir continually until it thickens. Add another portion of the milk and proceed as before. Continue until all the milk has been added. The sauce is sufficiently cooked when it reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has been added. Pour this sauce over dry or moist toast.

_Moist toast_ is prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot, salted water or hot milk. If the crust has not been cut from bread for toasting, only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened.

The flavor of butter in Cream Toast is pleasing. To secure some butter flavor and at the same time economize, a combination of butter and a mild flavored fat or oil may be used.

QUESTIONS

Give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in White Sauce (see Experiment 25).

What is the proportion of fat and flour? What is the proportion of flour and liquid? Using this proportion, how much flour should be used for one cupful of liquid?

What is the use of flour in White Sauce?

Note the consistency of the sauce, and keep it in mind as a standard of comparison for the thickness of other sauces.

What should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quickly digested? Give reasons for your answer.

LESSON XXVI

ROOT VEGETABLES (A)

Plant Roots.--Plants used for food have their stored-up food largely in the form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar. The parts of the plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehouse for the plant. All roots and tubers contain carbohydrates, although not in so large a proportion as cereals. Those most commonly used as foods are potatoes, tapioca, parsnips, carrots, beets, and turnips. Potatoes and tapioca contain the most starch in this group. Parsnips, carrots, and beets contain a little starch and much sugar. Turnips contain much cellulose. Carrots, parsnips, and beets are also rich in cellulose.

All root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash.

Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with or without the Skins, and in Water or in Steam [Footnote 29: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--This lesson can be conducted most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and having each group clean, prepare, and cook in water and in steam, potatoes and carrots as directed above.]--Clean, prepare, and cook in water pared and unpared potatoes, scraped and unscraped carrots, and cook in steam pared potatoes and scraped carrots.

Clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush; cook them in _gently boiling_ water. Use the same quantity of water in each case (when cooked in water) and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water. When the vegetables are tender (test with a fork or knitting needle), drain each thoroughly, catching the water in a bowl. Dry each vegetable by shaking the saucepan containing it over a flame.

Pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cooked vegetable; cool, and then test with iodine for starch.

Also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in an evaporating dish. Boil the water until the moisture is entirely evaporated. Then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charred material appears and then disappears. Is any solid material left? If so, it is mineral matter.

Which vegetables,--those cooked (in water) with or without the skins,-- lose the more starch and ash?

Which vegetables without the skins,--those cooked in water or those cooked in steam,--lose the more starch and ash?

As far as saving nutriment is concerned, which method of preparation is better for vegetables cooked in water? Which method of cooking is better for vegetables without the skins?

Peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins. Cut all into dice. Prepare about half as much _White Sauce_ as you have of the vegetable, using the ingredients for the sauce in the following proportion:

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1 cupful liquid

For the _liquid_ of the sauce for those vegetables cooked in water without the skins, use half milk and half vegetable stock. Use only milk for the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and for steamed vegetables. (For method of making White Sauce, see _Cream Toast_) Add the vegetables to the sauce, reheat, and serve. Divide the vegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the six vegetables.

Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more pleasing color?

Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more pleasing flavor?

As far as appearance and flavor are concerned, which method of preparation is better for potatoes? Which method for carrots?

As far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned, which method of cooking is better for both vegetables?

Suggestions for Cooking Root Vegetables.--All vegetables growing beneath the ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush. Unless a vegetable is dried or wilted, it should not be soaked in water for any length of time before cooking.

The comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables should not be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all the nutriment. There are some who contend, however, that a more delicate and pleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have their skins removed before cooking, and that the flavor is more to be desired than a saving of all nutrients. Often vegetables are more pleasing in color when cooked without their skins.

The nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in water consist not only of carbohydrates, but of ash and other valuable materials. [Footnote 30: _Vitamines_, see Division Seven]

Satisfactory results may be obtained by _baking_ or _steaming_ vegetables. By using the latter method, vegetables can be pared and cut into pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients. It has been pointed out, [Footnote 31: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI (May, 1919), "Changes in the Food Value of Vegetables," by Minna C. Denton.] however, that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamed vegetables. The extent of the loss depends in part upon the type of steamer and the method of using it. If the bottom of the upper pan of a steamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with the perforated portion, the condensed steam "washes" the mineral matter from the vegetable. This "vegetable broth" then drops into the lower pan of the steamer.

An evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in the manner described above and observing the coloring which appears in the water beneath the steaming vegetable. Loss of nutrients in such a steamer can be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and inserting the latter in the upper portion of the steamer. The pan or plate should, of course, be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer. By using the type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan (see Figure 31), no loss of nutrients occurs, provided the accumulated vegetable broth is used.

Care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at a very high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker. This results in both loss of nutrients and flavor.

If starchy vegetables are cooked in water, when tender immediately drain away the water and dry them. Serve at once or let them remain uncovered in a warm place. The steam is thus allowed to escape. Condensed steam makes starchy vegetables soggy.

BOILED POTATOES

If potatoes are to be cooked without their skins, pare them as thin as possible, or in the case of new potatoes, scrape them. Cut away any green portion [Footnote 32: Green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubers growing too near the surface of the ground. This colored portion contains an injurious substance called solanin.] which appears on the potato. If the potatoes are sprouted, [Footnote 33: Sprouted potatoes also contain some solanin. Potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritious material is used up by the growing sprouts and, as mentioned above, an injurious material is formed. Potatoes can be prevented from sprouting by storing them in a dry, dark, cool place.] also cut away the portion around the sprouts.

In cooking potatoes in water, follow the directions given on page 59, Cooking Vegetables in Water. When they are tender, drain off the water immediately; shake gently and dry on the back of the range with the saucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb the moisture. Sprinkle generously with salt. Boiled potatoes may be put through a ricer before serving.

CREAMED AND SCALLOPED VEGETABLES.--Cooked vegetables may be creamed by cutting them into cubes, adding White Sauce, and then reheating. If the cut vegetables are cold, they can be heated by adding them to the sauce with the last portion of liquid. By the time the sauce reaches the boiling point, the vegetables will be heated. Care should be taken not to break the vegetables while heating them in the sauce. Care should also be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching. An asbestos mat over a gas burner is desirable for this purpose. Use one part of White Sauce with 2 or 3 parts of diced vegetables.

Vegetables may be scalloped by placing Creamed Vegetables in an oiled baking-dish, covering with buttered crumbs, and browning in the oven.

WHITE SAUCE FOR VEGETABLES

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute _or_ 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/2 teaspoonful salt White pepper 1/2 cupful milk 1/2 cupful vegetable stock

Cook as directed for Cream Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). The thickness of White Sauce for vegetables depends upon the kind of vegetable. The thinner sauce is generally more satisfactory with starchy vegetables.

CRUMBS FOR SCALLOPED DISHES

1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1/8 teaspoonful salt White pepper or cayenne 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute

Mix seasonings and crumbs together, then add to the melted fat, or place the fat in bits over the seasoned crumbs.

QUESTIONS

How should the water boil in cooking vegetables? Why?

Why should not potatoes be covered with a tin lid or plate after cooking?

Are potatoes sold by the pound or bushel? What is the price per pound or bushel?

Mention at least three ways of cooking root vegetables so as to retain their nutriment.

LESSON XXVII

ROOT VEGETABLES (B)

EXPERIMENT 30: THE EFFECT OF SOAKING STARCHY VEGETABLES IN WATER,--Over several pieces of potato pour enough water to cover. Allow the vegetable to stand at least 15 minutes. Pour the water from the vegetable into a test tube and heat it. Cool, then test the water with iodine. What does the water contain? What conclusion can you draw concerning the soaking of vegetables in water before cooking?

SWEET POTATOES

Cook sweet potatoes with or without the skins (see _Cooking Vegetables in Water_). Peel (if cooked with the skins), mash, add a little hot milk, salt, and butter, beat thoroughly and serve.

Cooked sweet potatoes may also be cut into halves lengthwise, spread with butter or substitute, sprinkled with a very little sugar, and browned in the oven.

SWEET POTATOES (Southern style)

3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 6 sweet potatoes Salt and pepper Boiling water

Scrub and pare the sweet potatoes, cut them into halves lengthwise. Put the butter and sugar in a frying pan and when hot, add the sweet potatoes. Brown the potatoes, add the salt and pepper and enough boiling water to cover the bottom of the frying pan. Cover and cook slowly until the potatoes are tender. Nearly all the water should be evaporated when the potatoes are cooked. That which remains should be poured over the potatoes as a sauce for serving.

Sweet potatoes may also be cooked in a casserole in the oven. Uncover the casserole when the potatoes are almost tender, in order to brown them.

MOCK OYSTERS (parsnips with nuts and rice)

4 parsnips 2 eggs 1 cupful nuts, chopped 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 cupful cooked rice [Footnote 34: If the rice is cooked by boiling, use the rice water instead of plain water in making Tomato Sauce.] 4 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt

Boil or steam the parsnips until tender. Press them through a coarse sieve or colander. Add the beaten eggs. Then add the remainder of the ingredients. If the mixture is too thick to drop from the spoon, add a little milk. Drop by tablespoonfuls on to an oiled baking-sheet. Bake until slightly brown. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. Tomato Catsup or Celery Sauce may also be used in serving Mock Oysters. (Adapted from _Ninety Tested Recipes_, Teachers College.)

TOMATO SAUCE

1/2 can tomatoes 1 cupful water 2 cloves 3 allspice berries 3 peppercorns 2 sprays of parsley 3 tablespoonfuls fat 2 slices onion 1/4 cupful flour 1 teaspoonful salt

Allow tomatoes, water, spices, and herbs to simmer 15 to 20 minutes. Brown the onion in the fat, add flour and salt, then the tomato mixture. Follow the method of making White Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). Strain and serve.

QUESTIONS

From the results of Experiment 30 explain why vegetables should be placed in boiling rather than in cold water for cooking.

Why should the water be drained from boiled vegetables immediately after cooking?

From your grocer, find out in what quantities sweet potatoes are usually purchased. What is the price of them? How do they compare in price with white potatoes?

What is the price per pound of parsnips?

In preparing Tomato Sauce, what is the purpose of cooking the tomatoes and spices together for 15 or 20 minutes?

Why are the tomatoes strained after thickening rather than before?

LESSON XXVIII

ROOT VEGETABLES (C)

Tapioca is a food material prepared from the roots of the cassava plant grown in South America. Like many other foods prepared from the roots of plants, it consists of a large percent of starch. In its preparation, tapioca is heated so that the starch is partially cooked. Tapioca is prepared for the market in two forms,--pearl tapioca, and minute or granulated tapioca. The latter requires a much shorter time to cook. If granulated tapioca is substituted for pearl tapioca, but one half the quantity is required.

APPLE TAPIOCA

3/4 cupful pearl tapioca or 3/4 cupful granulated tapioca 2 1/2 cupfuls boiling water 1/2 teaspoonful salt 6 apples 1/2 cupful sugar

If pearl tapioca is used, cover it generously with cold water and allow it to stand one hour or overnight. While soaking keep the tapioca covered. If any water is unabsorbed, do not discard it,--use less than the given quantity of boiling water.

If granulated tapioca is used, no cold water is needed. For either granulated or pearl tapioca, add the boiling water and salt to the tapioca and cook over the naked flame and then over hot water as in the case of breakfast cereal (see _General Rules for Cooking Cereals_). Cook in the double boiler until transparent. Wash, core, and pare the apples; place them in a buttered baking-dish; fill the cavities with sugar, pour tapioca over them, and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft. Serve with sugar and cream, or with Lemon Sauce.

Other fruits may be substituted for apples. If canned fruits are used, substitute the fruit sirup for part of the water in which the tapioca is cooked.

RHUBARB TAPIOCA

Use the same ingredients for the rhubarb dessert as for Apple Tapioca, substituting for the apples 3 cupfuls of rhubarb, cut into pieces, and using twice the quantity of sugar. Bake until the rhubarb is soft.

LEMON SAUCE

3/4 cupful sugar 2 tablespoonfuls flour 2 cupfuls boiling water 1 lemon,--juice and rind 1 tablespoonful butter

Mix sugar and flour thoroughly; then slowly add the boiling water. Cook 10 minutes. Add the lemon juice and rind, then the butter. Stir until the butter is melted, when the sauce will be ready to serve.

For economy, the butter may be omitted. It adds to the flavor, however.

SWEET SAUCES.--Sweet Sauces usually contain sugar and butter and are thickened with a powdered cereal. It is interesting to consider which of the two materials--sugar or butter--should be used to separate the grains of the flour or corn-starch.

The quantity of fat used with the flour of White Sauces (see below) is a little less than that of the flour. It is difficult to separate starch grains when the quantity of fat equals only one half the quantity of flour. On the other hand, when starch grains are separated by means of sugar, the quantity of the sugar should equal at least the quantity of the starchy material (see _Blanc Mange_). In the recipe for Lemon Sauce above, it will be noted that the quantity of fat is one half that of the flour; the quantity of sugar greatly exceeds that of the flour. Hence the sugar affords a more satisfactory means of separating the starch grains in Lemon Sauce.

PROPORTIONS OF INGREDIENTS FOR SAUCES

Flour Fat Liquid

Thin White Sauce 1 tablespoonful, 3/4 tablespoonful, 1 cup (Toast, sweet sauce, certain cream soups, etc.)

Medium White Sauce 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup

(Vegetables (see page 109), gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)

Thick White Sauce 3 tablespoonfuls, 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup (Gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)

Very Thick White Sauce 4 tablespoonfuls, 3 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup (Croquettes, etc.)

(If richer sauces are desired, equal quantities of fat and flour should be used.)

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of soaking pearl tapioca in water before cooking? Give the reason for covering pearl tapioca while it is soaking. Why is it necessary to cook it in a double boiler?

What is the use of flour in Lemon Sauce? Why is the flour mixed with the sugar before adding the boiling water (see Experiment 24)? How long does it take the flour to thicken? How long a time does the recipe give for cooking the flour mixture? What is the purpose of cooking it for so long a time?

What precautions can be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching?

If, after cooking the required length of time, the sauce is not thick enough, what is the simplest method of thickening it?

For a sauce recipe in which very little fat and no sugar are given, devise a method of preparing _smooth_ sauce.

LESSON XXIX

STARCHY FOODS COOKED AT HIGH TEMPERATURE

STEAM UNDER PRESSURE.--Which is hotter,--the "steam" (_i.e._ water vapor) coming from boiling water in an uncovered saucepan or teakettle or the "steam" which has been held underneath the lid of a covered saucepan or teakettle (see Figure 32)? Steam confined in a small space or held under pressure may reach a temperature higher than that of boiling water.

EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE UPON POP CORN AND POTATOES.--Pop corn contains water. When heated, the water changes to steam. The covering of cellulose holds the steam in the kernel. When the steam expands and reaches a temperature far above the boiling point of water, it finally bursts the covering and the starch swells at once.