Chapter 26

Why do Apple Dumplings require a longer time for baking than Baking Powder Biscuits?

How should citron be cut for use in cooking?

If apples are to be used for the fruit of Fruit Rolls, give in order the measuring, the preparation, and the mixing of the materials.

RELATED WORK

LESSON CXXXI

MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOOD APPLIED TO DAILY FOOD REQUIREMENT

Practical Method of Diet Calculation.--The 100-Calorie portions can be used in a very practical way for computing the fuel value of one's daily diet. In Lesson CXVI the weights of 100-Calorie portions of flour, butter, sugar, etc., were determined, then these portions were weighed and measured. In much the same way, tables have been prepared containing the weight and measure of 100-Calorie portions. If such a table is read and the quantity of the various ordinary foods that will produce 100 Calories of heat is kept in mind, the computation of the meal becomes very simple.

If a person knows his energy requirement, he can select such quantities of food for the day as will conform with the ideal standard. The quantity of food to be used at each meal is a matter of personal choice. The important point is to have the food of the entire day conform to the standard. However, in computing the energy value of the foods of each meal, some find it convenient to divide the day's ration. The following is a convenient division: One third for breakfast, one fourth for luncheon, and five twelfths for dinner.

But the division may vary with individual needs. Ascertaining one's energy requirement and deciding upon a certain division for the three meals, one can very easily select such quantities of foods for each meal as will conform with the ideal standard. If the energy requirement of a girl of fourteen years is 2200 Calories, her breakfast may yield approximately 750 Calories, her luncheon 550 Calories, and her dinner 900 Calories. A luncheon consisting of an omelet made with one egg (50), one medium slice of homemade bread (100), orange marmalade (100), butter for bread (100), large banana (100), and a small glass of milk (100) would yield sufficient nourishment according to the requirement above.

If it is desired to compute the Calories produced by the protein of a meal, data can be obtained from the table also (see _Calories Derived from Protein_).

The calculation of the protein content of the luncheon above is:

Number of Calories derived from protein of egg 18.2 Number of Calories derived from protein of bread 13.8 Number of Calories derived from protein of marmalade 0.7 Number of Calories derived from protein of butter 0.5 Number of Calories derived from protein of banana 5.3 Number of Calories derived from protein of milk 19.1 ---- Number of Calories derived from protein of entire meal 57.6

If one tenth of the total energy requirement is taken as the desired protein requirement, the above luncheon approaches the ideal.

The Form C given below will be found convenient to use in calculating the fuel value of menus from 100-Calorie portions.

QUESTIONS

Calculate your own breakfast, luncheon, and dinner energy requirement, and those of at least two members of your family.

From the table of 100-Calorie portions estimate the fuel value of all your meals served either at your home or at school for several days. Compare the result with the ideal energy requirement obtained above. If the results vary greatly, strive to select the proper kind and quantity of foods so that the total Calories and Calories derived from protein approach the ideal.

FORM C: CALCULATION OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS

Meal: Number Served: Food Quantity Number Total Calories Total Cost Total of 100- Calories Produced Calories of 100- Cost Calorie by Protein Produced Calorie Portions in 100- by Protein Portion Calorie Portion

Total Total for One Person

Percent of Total Calories produced by calories derived from Protein: Signature: Date:

TABLE OF 100-Calorie PORTIONS

[Footnote 103: The approximate measure of 100-Calorie portions is based in part upon "Table of 100 Food Units," compiled by Dr. Irving Fisher. The weight in ounces of 100-Calorie portions and Calories derived from protein are based upon data found on p. 410 of "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," by Henry C. Sherman, Ph. D. Items marked "*" are from "Feeding the Family," by Mary Swartz Rose, Table III, p. 355.]

EDIBLE PORTIONS APPROXIMATE MEASURE WEIGHT CALORIES OF 100-CALORIE IN OUNCES DERIVED PORTION OF 100- FROM CALORIE PROTEIN PORTION Almonds 15 average 0.5 12.6 Apples 2 medium 5.6 2.5 Apricots, fresh 2 large 6.1 7.7 Asparagus, cooked 2 servings 7.5 17.9 Bacon, smoked (uncooked) 1 thin slice, small 0.6 6.7 Bananas 1 large 3.6 5.3 Beans, baked, canned 1 small serving (1/2 cupful) 2.8 21.5 string, canned 5 servings 17.2 21.5 lima, canned 1 large saucedish 4.6 20.8 Beef, corned 1.2 21.2 dried, salted, and smoked 4 large slices 2.0 67.2 *loaf Slice 4in.x6in.x1/8in. 1.4 40.0 porterhouse steak 1 serving 1.3 32.4 ribs, lean 1 average serving 1.9 42.3 ribs, fat 0.9 15.6 round, free from visible fat 1 generous serving 3.1 80.7 rump, lean 1.7 41.0 rump, fat 0.9 17.5 *stew with vegetables 2/5 cupful 3.0 16.0 sirloin steak 1 average serving 1.4 31.0 Beets, cooked 3 servings 8.9 23.2 *Biscuits, baking powder 2 small 1.3 11.0 *Blanc Mange 1/4 cupful 1.9 8.0 Brazil nuts 3 average size 0.5 10.2 Bread, graham 1 thick slice 1.3 13.5 toasted 2 medium slices (baker's) 1.2 15.2 white homemade 1 medium slice 1.3 13.8 average 1 thick slice 1.3 14.0 whole wheat 1 thick slice 1.4 15.9 Buckwheat flour 1/4 cupful 1.0 7.4 Butter 1 tablespoonful(ordinary pat) 0.5 0.5 Buttermilk 1 1/4 cupfuls (1 1/2 9.9 33.6 glasses) Cabbage 2 servings 11.2 20.3 *Cake, chocolate Piece 2 1/2" x 2 1/2" 0.9 8.0 x 7/8" *Cake, one egg Piece 1 3/4" x 1 3/4" 1.0 8.0 x 1 3/4" Calf's-foot jelly 4.1 19.8 Carrots, fresh 2 medium 7.8 9.7 Cauliflower (as purchased) 11.6 23.6 Celery 19.1 23.8 Celery soup, canned 2 servings 6.6 15.7 Cheese, American pale (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 26.5 American red (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 20.0 Cheddar (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 24.4 Cottage 4 cubic inches (1/2 cupful) 3.2 76.1 Neufchatel 1 1/2 cubic inches 1.1 23.2 (1/4 cupful) (1/2 small package) Roquefort (as purchased) 1.0 25.3 Swiss (as purchased) 1 1/3 cubic inches 0.8 25.4 Chicken, broilers 1 large serving 3.3 79.1 Chocolate "generous half" square 0.6 8.3 *Chocolate (beverage half milk and half water) 1/2 cupful (scant) 4.1 10.0 Cocoa 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls 0.7 17.3 *Cocoa (beverage, half milk and half water) 3/4 cupful 5.5 14.0 Cod, salt 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls 3.4 97.5 *Cookies 2, 2 1/4 in. diameter 0.9 6.0 Corn, green (as purchased) 1 side dish 3.6 11.4 Corn-meal 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 10.3 Crackers, graham.. 3 crackers 0.9 9.6 soda 3 crackers 0.9 9.4 water 3 crackers 0.9 10.3 Cranberries(as purchased) 1 cupful (cooked) 7.5 3.4 Cream 1/4 cupful 1.8 5.0 Cucumbers 2 large 20.3 18.4 *Custard, cup 1/3 cupful 3.3 17.0 Dates, dried 4 medium 1.0 2.4 Doughnuts 1/2 doughnut 0.8 6.2 Eggs, uncooked 1 1/2 medium or 2 small 2.4 36.4 Farina 1.0 12.3 Figs, dried 1 large 1.1 5.5 Flour, rye 1/4 cupful 1.0 7.9 wheat, entire 1/4 cupful 1.0 15.5 wheat, graham 1/4 cupful 1.0 14.9 wheat, average high and medium 1/4 cupful 1.0 12.8 Gelatine 4 tablespoonfuls 1.0 98.7 *Gingerbread Piece 1 in. x 2in. x 2 in. 1.2 8.0 Grapes 1 large bunch 3.7 5.4 Haddock 4.9 96.3 Halibut steaks 1 average serving 2.9 61.8 Ham, fresh, lean 1.5 44.0 fresh, medium 1 average serving 1.1 19.0 smoked, lean 1.3 30.1 Herring, whole 2.5 54.6 Hominy, uncooked 1/4 cupful 1.0 9.3 *Ice cream, vanilla 1/4 cupful 2.0 6.0 Lamb, chops, broiled 1 small chop 1.0 24.3 leg, roast 1 average serving 1.8 41.0 Lard, refined 1 tablespoonful (scant) 0.4 (--) Lemons 3 medium 8.0 9.0 Lettuce 50 large leaves 20.4 25.2 Liver, veal, uncooked 2 small servings 2.9 61.6 *Macaroni and cheese 1/3 cupful 2.1 17.0 Macaroni, uncooked. 1/4 cupful(4 sticks) 1.0 15.0 Macaroons 2 0.8 6.2 Mackerel, uncooked 1 large serving 2.5 53.9 salt 1.2 29.5 Marmalade, orange 1 tablespoonful 1.0 0.7 Milk, condensed, sweetened 1 1/16 cupfuls 1.1 10.9 skimmed 1 1/4 cupfuls (scant) 9.6 37.1 whole 5/8 cupful (generous half glass) 5.1 19.1 Molasses, cane 1/8 cupful 1.2 3.4 *Muffins, corn-meal 3/4 muffin 1.2 13.0 *Muffins, wheat 4/5 muffin 1.2 12.0 Muskmelons 1/2 average serving 8.9 6.0 Mutton, leg 1 average serving 1.8 41.2 Oatmeal, uncooked 1/8 cupful 0.9 16.1 Olives, green 7 to 10 1.2 1.5 Onions, fresh 2 medium 7.3 13.2 Oranges 1 very large 6.9 6.2 Oysters, canned 5 oysters 4.9 48.6 Parsnips 1 large 5.4 9.9 Peaches, canned 1 large serving 7.5 6.0 fresh 4 medium 8.5 6.8 Peanuts 10 to 12 (double kernels) 0.6 18.6 Peas, canned 2 servings 6.3 25.9 Peas, dried, uncooked 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 27.6 green 1 generous serving 3.5 28.0 Pies, apple 1/3 piece 1.3 4.6 custard 1/3 piece 2.0 9.4 lemon 1/3 piece 1.4 5.6 mince 1/4 piece 1.2 8.1 squash 1/3 piece 2.0 9.9 Pineapples, fresh 5 slices 8.2 3.7 canned 1 small serving 2.3 1.0 Pork, chops, medium 1 very small serving 1.1 19.9 fat, salt [Footnote 104: As purchased.] 0.5 1.0 *Potatoes, creamed 2/5 cupful 2.7 9.0 Potatoes, white, uncooked 1 medium 4.2 10.6 Potatoes, sweet, uncooked 1/2 medium 2.9 5.8 Prunes, dried 3 large 1.2 2.8 Raisins 1/8 cupful 1.0 3.0 (packed solid) Rhubarb, uncooked 3 1/2 cupfuls (scant) 15.3 10.4 *Rice Pudding 1/4 cupful 2.2 12.0 Rice, uncooked 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 9.3 Salmon, whole 1 small serving 1.7 43.1 Sauce, white 1/4 cupful 2.4 8.0 *Salmon, loaf 1/4 cupful 2.1 37.0 Shad, whole 1 average serving 2.2 45.9 Shredded wheat 1 biscuit 1.0 11.3 *Soup, corn 1/2 cupful 3.9 12.0 potato 1/2 cupful (scant) 4.2 15.0 cream of tomato 3/8 cupful 3.2 11.0 Spinach, fresh 3 ordinary servings 14.7 35.0 [Footnote 105: as (after cooking) purchased] Succotash, canned 1 average serving 3.6 14.7 Sugar 3 lumps, 5 teaspoonfuls granulated 0.9 (--) 6 1/2 teaspoonfuls powdered sugar Tapioca, apple 1/4 cupful 3.6 0.7 Tomatoes, fresh 4 average servings 15.5 15.8 canned 1 3/4 cupfuls 15.6 21.3 Turkey 1 serving 1.2 28.7 Turnips 2 large servings 9.0 13.3 (2 turnips) Veal, cutlet 2.3 53.6 fore quarter 2.3 52.8 hind quarter 2.3 53.0 Walnuts, California 4 whole nuts 0.5 10.3 Wheat, cracked 1.0 12.4 White fish 2.4 61.4 Zwieback 1 thick slice 0.8 9.4

LESSON CXXXII

PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER

Plan a dinner. [Footnote 106: See Footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials does not exceed 30 cents per person. From the Table of 100-Calorie Portions estimate the total Calories and the Calories derived from protein produced by the foods of your menu. How do the total Calories compare with the dinner energy requirement of an average man or woman? Are the Calories derived from protein from 10 to 15 per cent of the total Calories? If necessary, change your menu so that its total Calories meet the dinner energy requirements of an average man or woman and its Calories derived from protein are from 10 to 15 per cent of the total Calories. The pupil should note that the Calorific value of meals is usually correct if the suggestions for menu-making given in Lesson CV are followed.

Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise Style of serving. Serve the dinner with a maid. [Footnote 107: See Footnote 101.]

LESSON CXXXIII

REVIEW--MEAL COOKING

MENU

Rolled Beef Steak Stuffed Baked Potato Drop Biscuits

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON CXXXIV

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 108: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Plan and cook meals.

From the Table of 100-Calorie Portions estimate the fuel value of the meals you prepare.

SUGGESTED AIMS: To compare the fuel value of the meals with the energy requirements secured in answering the _Questions_ in Lesson CXXXI. To use these comparisons as a basis on which to plan meals more nearly approaching the desired energy requirements.

DIVISION THIRTEEN

YEAST BREADS: STIFF DOUGHS

LESSON CXXXV

YEAST--LOAF BREAD

EXPERIMENT 77: CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH OF THE YEAST PLANT.--(_a_) Mix 1 tablespoonful of flour, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, 3/4 cake compressed yeast, and 5 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Put 1 tablespoonful of the mixture in a test tube and mark the tube "_a_." Fill the tube nearly full of lukewarm water and stand in a warm place for 15 minutes. Examine, noting especially the appearance at the top of the test tube. What kind of substance (gas, liquid, or solid) has been formed by the growth of the yeast plants?

(_b_) Put 1 teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube, and fill nearly full of boiling water. Label it "_b_" and after 15 minutes examine. Is there any change in the contents of the tube? What has happened to the yeast plants?

(_c_) Put 1 teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube, fill nearly full of cold water, and label it "_c_." Surround it with cracked ice or, if the weather is cold, place it out of doors. After 15 minutes examine. Is there any change in the contents of the tube? Why do not the yeast plants grow?

(_d_) Surround the tube marked "_c_" with lukewarm water and stand in a warm place. After 15 minutes examine. Are the yeast plants growing? Does freezing kill yeast plants?

(_e_) Mix 1/8 cake yeast with a little lukewarm water. Stand in a warm place and after 15 minutes examine. Will yeast grow in water alone?

(_f_) Mix 1/8 cake yeast, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and a little lukewarm water. Set aside in a warm place so that the yeast plants may grow. Then examine under the microscope. Are there any budding yeast cells? Make a drawing of the plants as they appear under the microscope.

Draw at least two practical conclusions from these experiments as to the use and care of yeast for bread making

PROPERTIES OF YEAST.--Yeast consists of a mass of microscopic plants (see Figure 86). When placed under proper conditions these plants grow rapidly, and in so doing they separate the sugar that exists in flour into carbon dioxide and alcohol. The carbon dioxide lightens dough. The alcohol passes off as vapor in baking.

Plants need moisture, warmth, light, and the food that is furnished by the air and soil for their growth. Yeast plants require all of these except light. They are not green plants, hence they need no light. Moisture is obtained from the water, milk, or other liquids used in bread dough. Yeast thrives at a temperature of 90 degrees F. It is killed by a temperature above 130 degrees F. Hence the yeast is mixed with lukewarm water. The other liquids that are added to it are of the same temperature. Also, the dough is placed in a warm place while it is rising, or while the yeast plants are growing. The food required for the rapid growth of the yeast is obtained from the protein and carbohydrates in the flour.

_Compressed yeast cakes_ which are wrapped in tinfoil and received fresh at the market every day or two are the most satisfactory to use. This yeast must be fresh for successful bread making. It is fresh when it is of a light color, is free from dark streaks, and is crumbly in texture.

Stiff Dough.--_Approximately four parts of flour to one of moisture are used for stiff doughs._ When sufficient flour has been added to stiff dough, it should not cling to the sides of the mixing bowl. This is an indication to the pupil of the proper stiffness of the dough. The test applies, however, only when there is no coating of flour over the dough. One should remember that the softest dough will not "stick," if covered generously with flour.

General Suggestions for Bread Making.--Use wheat bread flour, or a combination of wheat bread flour with whole wheat, or graham flour, or with flour or meal made from other grains, in making bread. Flour should be kept in a dry place. It is well to warm flour for bread before using.

If milk is used, scald or boil it to prevent it from souring. Water should be boiled and then cooled (see _Why Foods Spoil_).

With 1 pint of liquid 1/2 to 1 cake of yeast should be used. When it is desired to mix and bake bread in a few hours, a greater quantity of yeast may be used. If the yeast is fresh, most satisfactory results are secured when this is done. The use of much yeast, however, adds to the cost of bread. The less quantity of yeast (1/2 cake) is used when the dough is allowed to rise overnight. Mix 1 yeast cake in 1 cupful of lukewarm water before adding the rest of the liquid.

It is desirable to use sufficient yeast and to subject it to desirable conditions so that the dough will rise quickly. If the rising process occupies much time, certain kinds of bacteria which may be present in the yeast or other materials may act upon the alcohol present in the risen dough and convert it into acid. This produces sour dough and consequently bread of sour taste and odor.

Although it is customary to allow bread to rise twice, tasty bread may be secured by one rising. Bread raised only once, however, is usually of uneven grain, because the carbon dioxide bubbles formed during rising are uneven in size or are unevenly distributed. By kneading bread, the larger bubbles are broken or distributed more evenly through the dough. Since considerable gas is pressed out by kneading, it is necessary to allow the dough to rise a second time. It is well to make the dough into small loaves, and place them in small pans, so that the bread will be baked through.