Part 5

(3) Words representing abstract qualities personified: La Renommée ne vient souvent qu’après la Mort.

(4) The planets and constellations: Mars, le Bélier.

(5) Religious festivals: la Pentecôte.

(6) Historical events: la Révolution.

(7) The names of streets, squares, &c.: la rue des Mauvais-Garçons, la place de la Nation, la fontaine des Innocents.

(8) The names of public buildings, churches, &c.: l’Opéra, l’Odéon, église de la Trinité.

(9) Names relating to institutions, public bodies, religious, civil, or military orders (but only the word after the article): l’Académie française, la Légion d’honneur, le Conservatoire de musique.

(10) Surnames and nicknames, without hyphens: Louis le Grand.

(11) Honorary titles: Son Éminence, Leurs Altesses.

(12) Adjectives denoting geographical expressions: la mer Rouge, le golfe Persique.

(13) The names of the cardinal points designating an extent of territory: l’Amérique du Nord; aller dans le Midi. (See II. (2).)

(14) The word Église, when it denotes the Church as an institution: l’Église catholique; but when relating to a building église is put.

(15) The word État when it designates the nation, the country: La France est un puissant État.

II. Use lower-case initials for—

(1) The names of members of religious orders: un carme (a Carmelite), un templier (a Templar). But the orders themselves take capitals: l’ordre des Templiers, des Carmes.

(2) The names of the cardinal points: le nord, le sud. But see I. (13) above.

(3) Adjectives belonging to proper names: la langue française, l’ère napoléonienne.

(4) Objects named from persons or places: un quinquet (an argand lamp); un verre de champagne.

(5) Days of the week—lundi, mardi; names of months—juillet, août.

In plays the dramatis personae at the head of scenes are put in large capitals, and those not named in even small capitals:

SCÈNE V.

TRIBOULET, BLANCHE, HOMMES, FEMMES DU PEUPLE.

In the dialogues the names of the speakers are put in even small capitals, and placed in the centre of the line. The stage directions and the asides are put in smaller type, and are in the text, if verse, in parentheses over the words they refer to. If there are two stage directions in one and the same line, it will be advisable to split the line, thus:

(Revenu sur ses pas.) Oublions-les! restons.— (Il l’assied sur un banc.) Sieds-toi sur cette pierre.

Directions not relating to any particular words of the text are put, if short, at the end of the line:

Celui que l’on croit mort n’est pas mort.—Le voici! (Étonnement général.)

2. _Accented Capitals._—With one exception accents are to be used with capital letters in French. The exception is the grave accent on the capital letter A in such lines as—

A la porte de la maison, &c.; A cette époque, &c.;

and in display lines such as—

FÉCAMP A GENÈVE MACHINES A VAPEUR.

In these the preposition A takes no accent; but we must, to be correct, print Étienne, Étretat; and DÉPÔT, ÉVÊQUE, PRÉVÔT in cap. lines.[79] Small capitals should be accented throughout, there being no fear of the grave accent breaking off.

3. _The Grave and Acute Accents._—There has been an important change in recent years as to the use of the grave and acute accents in French. It has become customary to spell with a grave accent (`) according to the pronunciation, instead of with an acute accent (´), certain words such as collège (instead of collége), avènement (instead of avénement), &c. The following is a list of the most common:

allège l’Ariège arpège avènement barège collège le Corrège cortège évènement florilège grège lège Liège, liège[80] manège mège la Norvège or Norwège piège privilège sacrilège sacrilègement siège solfège sortilège sphège[81]

4. _Hyphens._—Names of places containing an article or the prepositions _en_, _de_, should have a hyphen between each component part, thus: Saint-Germain-des-Prés, Saint-Valery-en-Caux, although the Académie leaves out the last two hyphens.

Names of places, public buildings, or streets, to which one or more distinguishing words are added, take hyphens: Saint-Étienne-du-Mont, Vitry-le-François, rue du Faubourg-Montmartre, le Pont-Neuf, le Palais-Royal, l’Hôtel-de-la-Monnaie.

In numbers hyphens are used to connect quantities under 100: e. g. vingt-quatre; trois cent quatre-vingt-dix; but when _et_ joins two cardinal numbers no hyphen is used, e.g. vingt et un; cinquante et un. But print vingt-et-unième.

5. _Spacing._—No spaces to be put before the ‘points de suspension’, i.e. three points close together, cast in one piece, denoting an interruption (...). In very wide spacing a thin space may be put before a comma,[82] or before or after a parenthesis or a bracket. Colons, metal-rules, section-marks, daggers, and double-daggers take a space before or after them exactly as words. Asterisks and superior figures, not enclosed in parentheses, referring to notes, take a thin or middle space before them. Points of suspension are always followed by a space. For guillemets see pp. 86, 87.

A space is put after an apostrophe following a word of two or more syllables (as a Frenchman reckons syllables, e.g. bonne is a word of two syllables):—

Bonn’ petite... Aimabl’ enfant!...

Spaces are put in such a case as 10 h. 15 m. 10 s. (10 hours 15 min. 10 sec.), also printed 10^h 15^m 10^s.

Chemical symbols are not spaced, thus C^{10}H^{12}(OH)CO.OH.

6. _Awkward divisions: abbreviated words and large numbers expressed in figures._—One should avoid ending a line with an apostrophe, such as: Quoi qu’ | il dise?

If a number expressed in figures is too long to be got into a line, or cannot be taken to the next without prejudice to the spacing, a part of the number should be put as a word, thus: 100 mil- | lions.

7. _Division of words._—Words should be divided according to syllables, as in what the French call épellation (i.e. syllabication). Therefore a consonant should never be separated from the vowel following. Thus divide: amou-reux, cama-rade; and always take over _vr_: li-vraison. If a consonant is doubled, the consonants may be divided: mil-lion, pil-lard, in-nocent. It is optional to divide ob-scurité or obs-curité, according to convenience. Vowels are divided only in compound words: e.g. extra-ordinaire; not Mo-abite, mo-yen.

In compound words an apostrophe may be divided from a consonant following; thus: grand’-mère, grand’-route.

Divide sei-gneur, indi-gnité (gn pronounced as _ni_ in ‘mania’), i.e. take gn over.

The following divisions should be avoided: Ma-ximilien, soi-xante, Me-xique; é-légant. In a narrow measure a syllable of two letters may stand at the end of a line: ce-pendant, in-décis; but a syllable of two letters must not be taken over to the next line; therefore élégan-ce, adversi-té, are not permissible; but élégan-ces, mar-que, abri-cot, are tolerated.

Avoid terminating a paragraph with only the final syllable of a word in the last line.

Verbs taking the so-called euphonic _t_ should always be divided before the latter, thus: Viendra- | t-il?

Avoid dividing abbreviated words.

Etymological division finds no favour in French, unless it is in accord with épellation, or syllabication, as in trans-porter, trans-poser. But divide transi-tion, transi-ger.

Mute syllables may be turned over to the next line, thus: ils mar-quent, les hom-mes.

8. _Abbreviations._—Such words as article, chapitre, scène, titre, figure, are abbreviated only when in parentheses, as references; in the text they are put in full. If, in works divided into articles, the first article is put in full (thus: Article premier), those that follow may be in figures and abbreviated (as Art. 2).

Saint, sainte, when they occur very often, as in religious works, may be abbreviated, taking a capital letter: S. Louis, Ste Marie. But not when they form part of the name of a place, e.g. Saint-Germain-des-Prés; in which case Saint- and Sainte- take a capital and are followed by a hyphen.[83] (See also p. 75.)

The words monsieur, madame, monseigneur, messeigneurs, messieurs, mesdames, mademoiselle, mesdemoiselles, are written in full and all in lower-case when addressing a person: Oui, madame; Non, monsieur le duc. Also in the following instances: J’espère que monseigneur viendra; j’ai vu monsieur votre père. In most other cases M. (for monsieur), M^{me} (for madame), Mgr. or M^{gr} (for monseigneur), and so on, are used. The words Sa Majesté, Son Éminence, Leurs Altesses, when followed by another title, are put as initials, thus S. M. l’Empereur; but not otherwise.

The name Jésus-Christ is abbreviated only when in parentheses after a date, thus: (337 avant J.-C.). This is more frequently printed 337 A.J.C.

Other examples of abbreviations:

liv. (livre) ch. (chapitre) t. (tome) d^o (ditto) f^o (folio) in-f^o (in-folio) in-8^o (in-octavo) in-4^o (in-quarto) ms. (manuscrit) mss. (manuscrits) n^o (numéro) P.-S. (post-scriptum) I^{er} } (premier) 1^{er} } II, 2^e (deuxième) etc. (et cætera) c.-à-d. (c’est-à-dire) C^{ie} (compagnie) D^r (docteur) M^e (maître) M^{lle} (mademoiselle) N.-S. J.-C. (Notre-Seigneur Jésus-Christ) C^{te} (comte) M^{is} (marquis) V^{ve} (veuve) S.A. (Son Altesse) LL. AA. II. (Leurs Altesses Impériales)

Abbreviations of metric signs:

[84]Mm. (myriamètre) {84}Km. (kilomètre) {84}Hm. (hectomètre) dam. (décamètre) m. (mètre) dm. (décimètre) cm. (centimètre) mq. (mètre carré) mm. (millimètre) mmq. (millimètre carré) mmc. (millimètre cube) ha. (hectare) a. (are) ca. or m^2. (centiare) das. (décastère) s. or m^3. (stère) ds. (décistère) t. (tonne) q. (quintal métrique) kg. (kilogramme) hg. (hectogramme) dag. (décagramme) g. (gramme) dg. (décigramme) cg. (centigramme) mg. (milligramme) kl. (kilolitre) hl. (hectolitre) dal. (décalitre) l. (litre) dl. (décilitre) cl. (centilitre) ml. (millilitre)

Put: 20 francs, 20 mètres, 20 litres, 20 milligrammes. If, however, followed by fractions, then put—20 fr. 50, or 20^{fr},50; 20 m. 50, or 20^m,50; 20 l. 50, or 20^l,50; 20 kilog. 5, or 20^{kilo},5.

In works crowded with figures, one can even put—0^m,5 for 5 décimètres; 0^m,15 for 15 centimètres; 0^m,008 for 8 millimètres.

The cubic metre followed by a fraction is given thus: 4^{mc},005 or 4^{m3},005 (= 4 mètres cubes 5 millimètres cubes); the square metre thus: 4^{mq},05 or 4^{m2},05 (= 4 mètres carrés 5 décimètres carrés).

The French use a decimal comma instead of a decimal point—2,3 = 2·3.

The words kilogrammes, kilomètres, and kilogrammètres, followed by fractions, are given thus: 50 kg. 3 or 50^{kg},3; 5 km. 3 or 5^{km},3; 2 kgm. 4 or 2^{kgm},4.

Per cent. is generally put 0/0, but pour 100, p. 100, and % are also used. In business letters pour cent is always pour %, e.g. A trente jours, 3 pour % d’escompte.

9. _Numerals._—When cardinal numbers are expressed in Roman lower-case letters, the final unit should be expressed by a j, not an i, thus: ij, iij, vj, viij.

Numbers are put in full if only occasionally occurring in the text. If used statistically, figures are used.

Degrees of temperature are generally given thus: 15°, 15 (in English 15° 15′).

Age or the time of day must be given in full: huit ans, six heures (eight years, six o’clock).

Dates, figures, &c., are put in full in legal documents: l’an mil neuf cent quatre (the year one thousand nine hundred and four).

One should not put ‘de 5 à 6,000 hommes’, but ‘de 5,000 à 6,000 hommes’.

Commas in figures are used as in English, thus: 20,250 fr. 25 or 20,250^{fr},25. But dates, and numbers in general, are always put without a comma: l’année 1466; page 1250; Code civil, art. 2000.

Fractions with a horizontal stroke are preferred in mathematical and scientific works; but in ordinary works the diagonal stroke is used, thus: 1/2, 2/3 (½, ⅔).

In logarithm tables the fractional part of a logarithm is printed with spaces, thus: Log. 2670 = 3, 426 5113; and also: Log. 2670 = 3, 4 265 113.

10. _Roman and italic._—In algebraical formulae the capital letters are always put in roman and the small letters in italic. If, however, the text is in italic, the small letters are put in roman type.

The titles of works, of plays, of journals, names of ships, of statues, and titles of tables mentioned in the text, are put in italic; thus: La pièce _La Chatte blanche_; J’ai vu _Les Rois en exil_; On lit dans _Le Figaro_; le journal _Le Temps_; le transport _Bien-Hoa_.

Foreign words[85] and quotations are, as in English, italicized: Agir _ab irato_; _Cave canem!_ lisait-on....

Superior letters in words italicized should be in italic, thus: _Histoire de Napoléon I^{er}_.

11. _Reference figures._—References to notes are generally rendered thus: (1), or thus: ^1. Sometimes an asterisk between parentheses (*) or standing alone *, or italic superior letters (^_a_), are used. The second example (^1) is the best from the English point of view.

The figure in the note itself is put either 1. or (1) or ^1. In many works the reference figure is put ^1, and the note-figure 1.

12. _Metal-rules._—These serve in French to denote conversational matter, and take a thick space (or more, if necessary) after them. In fact, metal-rules, as in German, always have a space before or after, and are never put close to a word as in English. They are likewise never put after colons.

They are also used to give more force to a point: Il avait un cœur d’or, — mais une tête folle; et vraiment, — je puis le dire, — il était d’un caractère très agréable.

They are likewise used, as in English, for intercalations: Cette femme — étrangère sans doute — était très âgée.

13. _Quotation marks._—The French use special quotation marks « » (called guillemets). A guillemet is repeated at the head of every subsequent paragraph belonging to the quotation.

In conversational matter, guillemets are sometimes put at the commencement and end of the remarks, and the individual utterances are denoted by a metal-rule (with a space after). But it is more common to dispense with guillemets altogether, and to denote the commencement of the conversation by only a metal-rule. This is an important variation from the English method.

If the » comes after points de suspension, a middle space is put before and after it:

La cour a décrété qu’ « attendu l’urgence... » .

If, in dialogues, a passage is quoted, the « is put before the metal-rule:

« — Demain, à minuit, nous sortirons enfin! »

In tables and workings the » is used to denote an absent quantity:

125 . 15 130 » 10 » 15 . 25

If a sentence contains a citation, the point at the end of the latter is put before the », and the point belonging to the sentence after:

« Prenez garde au chien! » , lisait-on à l’entrée des maisons romaines.

If the matter quoted ends with a full stop, and a comma follows in the sentence, the full stop is suppressed:

« C’est par le sang et par le fer que les États grandissent » , a dit Bismarck.

Also, if the point at the end of the citation is a full stop, and the sentence ends with a note of interrogation or exclamation, the full stop is suppressed:

A-t-il dit: « Je reviendrai » ?

If citation and sentence end with the same point, or if the sentence ends with a full stop, only the citation is pointed:

Quel bonheur d’entendre: « Je vous aime! » A-t-il dit: « Qui est ici? » Il a dit: « Je viendrai. »

But if the punctuation of the citation differs from that of the sentence, both points are put:—

A-t-il dit: « Quel grand malheur! » ?

Guillemets should have before and after them the same space as between words.

In the case of a citation within a citation, the « must stand at the commencement of each line of the enclosed citation:

On lit dans _Le Radical_: « Une malheureuse erreur a été commise par un de nos artistes du boulevard. Ayant à dire: « Mademoiselle, je ne « veux qu’un mot de vous! » , il a fait entendre ces paroles: « Mademoiselle, je ne veux qu’un mou de « veau! »

In passages quoted down the side put an en quad after the « commencing each line.

Only one » is put at the end of two citations ending simultaneously.

FOOTNOTES:

[76] I am greatly indebted to M. Désiré Greffier, author of _Les Règles de la composition typographique, à l’usage des compositeurs, des correcteurs et des imprimeurs_, and to his publisher, M. Arnold Muller, of the Imprimerie des Beaux-Arts, 36 Rue de Seine, Paris, for permission to translate and make extracts from this useful brochure.—H. H.

[77] M. Greffier carefully explains that in putting capitals to the articles in the case of these and similar names he differs from the Académie française.—H. H.

[78] Many now write ‘Dante’ for ‘le Dante’; ‘Tasse’ is also met with for ‘le Tasse’.—H. H.

[79] M. Reyne, proof-reader in the National Government Printing-Office, Paris, tells me that there is no uniformity of practice in French printing-offices in regard to the accentuation of capital letters generally, although there is a consensus of opinion as to retaining accents for the letter E. As to the grave accent on the capital letter A, the two extracts which follow are sufficient authority:

‘The letter A, when a capital, standing for à, is never accented by French printers. This, I know, is a rule without exception; and one of the reasons given is that the accented capital is “ugly”. A better reason is that the accent often “breaks off”.’—Mr. LÉON DELBOS, M.A., _late Instructor in French to Royal Naval Cadets in H.M.S. ‘Britannia’_.

‘The practice of omitting the grave accent on the preposition A (whatever the reason of it may be) is all but universal.’—Mr. E. G. W. BRAUNHOLTZ, M.A., Ph.D., _Reader in the Romance Languages in the University of Cambridge_. [H. H.]

[80] ‘The rule about è instead of é, as in collège instead of collége, should be strictly adhered to, as it now is by most French people. However, é cannot be changed into è unless it have that sound; hence it is not right to say Liègeois, for the sound is that of é; but Liège is correct. Note that Liégeois takes an e after the g.’—Mr. LÉON DELBOS.

[81] The list is from Gasc’s _Dictionary of the French and English Languages_: G. Bell & Sons, 1889.

[82] The English practice, never to put a space before a comma, is regarded by the best French printers as bad. ‘This vicious practice’ (i.e. putting no space before a comma), says M. Théotiste Lefevre, ‘which appears to us to have no other motive than the negligence of the compositor, tends unhappily, from day to day, to get introduced also into French composition.’—_Guide pratique du compositeur et de l’imprimeur typographes_ (p. 196 _n_.) par T. Lefevre. Paris, Firmin-Didot, 1883.—H. H.

[83] St-Germain, Ste-Catherine, l’église de St-Sulpice, St-Hilaire, la St-Jean, are however met with in railway time-tables, &c.

[84] Mm. Km. Hm. These capitals and all the metric contractions are authorized by the French Minister of Public Instruction.—H. H.

[85] That is, words foreign to French.—H. H.

APPENDIX III

WORKS IN THE GERMAN LANGUAGE[86]

English compositors called upon to set up German should have clear directions beforehand as to the founts to be used, whether English or German. If the manuscript is in well-written German script, and the compositor is acquainted with the German characters, he will find little difficulty in setting this up in German type. It is otherwise if he has to set German in its own characters from manuscript in Roman characters. This is owing principally to the numerous digraphs and the long and short s’s used. The following rules will be found of use in both cases:

1. _Capitals and lower-case._—All German substantives are written with capital initial letters; and capital letters are also used for adjectives in geographical designations, e.g. =das Kaspische Meer= (the Caspian Sea), or in adjectives derived from proper names, e.g. =die Grimmschen Märchen= (_Grimm’s Fairy Tales_); but as a rule adjectives, even when relating to nationality, have lower-case initials, not excepting titles of books, &c., thus: =das deutsche Vaterland, die französische Revolution= (the German Fatherland, the French Revolution).

The =von= in German names of persons begins with a small letter (unless of course when it commences a sentence), e.g. =Herr von Bülow=.

The =von= in such cases requires only a thin space after it: =Geschrieben von von Richter= (written by von Richter).

2. _The Reformed German Spelling of 1902._—All words of German origin ending in =th=, as =Muth=, =Rath=, now drop the =h= and become =Mut=, =Rat=, &c. =That= has become =Tat=, =Thor= is now =Tor=. =Willkühr= has become =Willkür=. =Thee= is now spelt =Tee=. But =Thron=, =Theater=, &c., being derived from Greek, keep =th=. Also =ph= in words of German origin is now supplemented by =f=, thus =Efeu= (for =Epheu=); =Adolf=, =Rudolf=, =Westfalen= (for =Adolph=, =Rudolph=, =Westphalen=). Likewise =Elefant=, =Fasan=, =Sofa=. But =Phonograph=, =Philosoph=, =Symphonie=, being learned words of Greek origin. =Z= is more and more used for =C=, thus: =Zentrum= for =Centrum=; =Zentner=, =Zirkus=. =Ae=, =Oe=, Ue, are always rendered =Ä=, =Ö=, =Ü=.

Three identical letters should not come together before a vowel. Consequently print =Schiffahrt=, not =Schifffahrt= (but in dividing print =Schiff~fahrt=). =Mittag=, =dennoch= (from =Mitt~tag=, =denn~noch=), are invariable. The plural of =See= is no longer =Seeen=, but =Seen=; in narrow measure divide =See~en=.

The suffix =niſz= is now =nis=: =Hindernis=.

The verbal suffix =iren= is now uniformly written =ieren=, thus: =addieren=, =subtrahieren=, =multiplizieren=, =dividieren=, =marschieren=.

A detailed list of the new German, Austrian, and Swiss orthographies[87] may be obtained through any bookseller. A few German writers still object to the modern spelling; in such cases, of course, copy should be followed.

3. _Hyphens in German._—If two or more words follow one another, relating to a common part of speech with which they form a compound, all except the last take a hyphen, thus: =Hut- und Krawattenfabrikant= (hat and tie manufacturer). Compound words in German are now printed as one word.

4. _Division of words in German._—Prefixes should of course remain intact, such as =an=, =auf=, =ent=, =emp=, =er=, =ver=, =vor=, =über=, =zer=. Thus: =an~fangen=, =auf~fahren=, =ent~zweien=, =emp~finden=, =er~fahren=, =ver~ändern=, =vor~rücken=, =über~reden=, =zer~ſtoſzen=. In narrow measure divide =ge~ben=, =tra~gen=, =he~bung=, =le~bend=, =mä~hen=, =ſa~gen=, =Tü~cher=, =lö~ſchen=. (See under paragraph 2 of this Appendix, ‘Reformed Spelling’, for three identical letters coming together. See also under 7, 11, 14.)

5. _Spaced words._—In these the following compound letters should never be spaced: =ch=, =ck=, =ſt=, =ſz=, =tz=. The following are spaced: =ff=, =fi=, =fl=, =ll=, =ſi=, =ſſ=. That is, two different consonants coming together (except =f= and =l=) are not spaced; but a consonant and vowel, and double consonants, are to be spaced.

6. _Prepositional and other prefixes in German._—When =auf= precedes a part of speech commencing with =f=, the two =f=’s should not form one letter. Print =auffahren=, not =auffahren=.