Chapter 10

WHO WERE THE BUILDERS, AND WHENCE DID THEY COME?

Modern discussion of the origin of the megalithic monuments may be said to date from Bertrand's publication of the French examples in 1864. In this work Bertrand upheld the thesis that "the dolmens and _allées couvertes_ are sepulchres; and their origin seems up to the present to be northern." In 1865 appeared Bonstetten's famous _Essai sur les dolmens_, in which he maintained that the dolmens were constructed by one and the same people spreading over Europe from north to south. At this time the dolmens of North Africa were still unstudied. In 1867 followed an important paper by Bertrand. In 1872 two events of importance to the subject occurred, the publication of Fergusson's _Rude Stone Monuments in All Countries_, and the discussion raised at the Brussels Congress by General Faidherbe's paper on the dolmens of Algeria. Faidherbe maintained the thesis that dolmens, whether in Europe or Africa, were the work of a single people moving southward from the Baltic Sea.

The question thus raised has been keenly debated since. At the Stockholm Congress in 1874 de Mortillet advanced the theory that megalithic monuments in different districts were due to different peoples, and that what spread was the custom of building such structures and not the builders themselves. This theory has been accepted by most archæologists, including Montelius, Salomon Reinach, Sophus Müller, Hoernes, and Déchelette. But while the rest believe the influences which produced the megalithic monuments to have spread from east to west, i.e. from Asia to Europe, Salomon Reinach holds the contrary view, which he has supported in a remarkable paper called _Le Mirage Oriental_, published in 1893.

The questions we have to discuss are, therefore, as follows: Are all the megalithic monuments due to a single race or to several? If to a single race, whence did that race come and in what direction did it move? If to several, did the idea of building megalithic structures arise among the several races independently, or did it spread from one to another?

We shall consider first the theory that the idea of megalithic building was evolved among several races independently, i.e. that it was a phase of culture through which they separately passed.

On the whole, this idea has not found favour among archæologists. The use of stone for building might have arisen in many places independently. But megalithic architecture is something much more than this. It is the use of great stones in certain definite and particular ways. We have already examined what may be called the style of megalithic architecture and found that the same features are noticeable in all countries where these buildings occur. In each case we see a type of construction based on the use of large orthostatic slabs, sometimes surmounted by courses of horizontal masonry, with either a roof of horizontal slabs or a corbelled vault. Associated with this we frequently find the hewing of underground chambers in the rock. In almost all countries where megalithic structures occur certain fixed types prevail; the dolmen is the most general of these, and it is clear that many of the other forms are simply developments of this. The occurrence of structures with a hole in one of the walls and of blocks with 'cup-markings' is usual over the whole of the megalithic area. There are even more remarkable resemblances in detail between structures in widely separated countries. Thus the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia all have a concave façade which forms a kind of semicircular court in front of the entrance to the tomb. This feature is seen also in the temples of Malta, in the tomb of Los Millares in Spain, in the _naus_ of the Balearic Isles (where, however, the curve is slight), in the Giant's Grave of Annaclochmullin and the chambered cairn of Newbliss in Ireland, in the tomb of Cashtal-yn-Ard in the Isle of Man, in the barrow of West Tump in Gloucestershire, and in the horned cairns of the north of Scotland. These parallels are due to something more than coincidence; in fact, it is clear that megalithic building is a widespread and homogeneous system, which, despite local differences, always preserves certain common features pointing to a single origin. It is thus difficult to accept the suggestion that it is merely a phase through which many races have passed. The phases which occur in many races alike are always those which are natural and necessary in the development of a people, such as the phase of using copper. But there is nothing either natural or necessary in the use of huge unwieldy blocks of stone where much smaller ones would have sufficed.

There are further objections to this theory in the distribution of the megalithic buildings both in space and time. In space they occupy a very remarkable position along a vast sea-board which includes the Mediterranean coast of Africa and the Atlantic coast of Europe. In other words, they lie entirely along a natural sea route. It is more than accident that the many places in which, according to this theory, the megalithic phase independently arose all lie in most natural sea connection with each other, while not one is in the interior of Europe.

In time the vast majority of the megalithic monuments of Europe seem to begin near the end of the neolithic period and cover the copper age, the later forms continuing occasionally into that of bronze. Here again it is curious that megalithic building, if merely an independent phase in many countries, should arise in so many at about the same time, and with no apparent reason. Had it been the use of _worked_ stones that arose, and had this followed the appearance of copper tools, the advocates of this theory would have had a stronger case, but there seems to be no reason why huge unworked stones should _simultaneously_ begin to be employed for tombs in many different countries unless this use spread from a single source.

For these reasons it is impossible to consider megalithic building as a mere phase through which many nations passed, and it must therefore have been a system originating with one race, and spreading far and wide, owing either to trade influence or migration. But can we determine which?

Great movements of races by sea were not by any means unusual in primitive days, in fact, the sea has always been less of an obstacle to early man than the land with its deserts, mountains, and unfordable rivers. There is nothing inherently impossible or even improbable in the suggestion that a great immigration brought the megalithic monuments from Sweden to India or vice versa. History is full of instances of such migrations. According to the most widely accepted modern theory the whole or at least the greater part of the neolithic population of Europe moved in from some part of Africa at the opening of the neolithic age. In medieval history we have the example of the Arabs, who in their movement covered a considerable portion of the very megalithic area which we are discussing.

On the other hand, many find it preferable to suppose that over this same distance there extended a vast trade route or a series of trade routes, along which travelled the influences which account for the presence of precisely similar dolmens in Denmark, Spain, and the Caucasus. Yet although much has been written about neolithic trade routes little has been proved, and the fact that early man occasionally crossed large tracts of land and sea in the great movements of migration does not show that he also did so by way of trade, nor does it prove the existence of such steady and extensive commercial relations as such a theory of the megalithic monuments would seem to require. Immigration is often forced on a race. Change of climate or the diverting of the course of a great river may make their country unfit for habitation, or they may be expelled by a stronger race. In either case they must migrate, and we know from history that they often covered long distances in their attempt to follow the line of least resistance. Thus there is nothing a priori improbable in the idea that the megalithic monuments were built by a single invading race.

There are other considerations which support such a theory. It will be readily admitted that the commonest and most widely distributed form of the megalithic monument is the dolmen. Both this and its obvious derivatives, the Giant's Grave, the _allée couverte_, and others, are known to have been tombs, while other types of structure, such as the Maltese temple, the menhir, and the cromlech, almost certainly had a religious purpose. It is difficult to believe that these types of building, so closely connected with religion and burial, were introduced into all these regions simply by the influence of trade relations. Religious customs and the burial rites connected with them are perhaps the most precious possession of a primitive people, and they are those in which they most oppose and resent change of any kind, even when it only involves detail and not principle. Thus it is almost incredible that the people, for instance, of Spain, because they were told by traders that the people of North Africa buried in dolmens, gave up, even in isolated instances, their habit of interment in trench graves in favour of burial in dolmens. It is still more impossible to believe that this unnatural event happened in one country after another. It is true that the use of metal was spread by means of commerce, but here there was something to be gained by adopting the new discovery, and there was no sacrifice of religious custom or principle. An exchange of products between one country and another is not unnatural, but a traffic in burial customs is unthinkable.

Perhaps, however, it was not the form of the dolmen which was brought by commerce, but simply the art of architecture in general, and this was adapted to burial purposes. To this there are serious objections. In the first place it does not explain why exactly the same types of building (e.g. the dolmen), showing so many similarities of peculiar detail, occur in countries so far apart; and in the second place, if what was carried by trade was the art of building alone, why should the learners go out of their way to use huge stones when smaller ones would have suited their purpose equally well? That the megalithic builders knew how to employ smaller stones we know from their work; that they preferred to use large ones for certain purposes was not due to ignorance or chance, it was because the large stone as such had some particular meaning and association for them. We cannot definitely say that large stones were themselves actually worshipped, but there can be no possible doubt that for some reason or other they were regarded as peculiarly fit to be used in sanctified places such as the tombs of the dead. It is impossible that the men who possessed the skill to lay the horizontal upper courses of the Hagiar Kim temple should have taken the trouble to haul to the spot and use vast blocks over 20 feet in length where far smaller ones would have been more convenient, unless they had some deep-seated prejudice in favour of great stones.

Such are the main difficulties involved by the influence theory. On the other hand, objections have been urged against the idea that the monuments were all built by one and the same race. Thus Dr. Montelius in his excellent _Orient und Europa_ says, "In Europe at this time dwelt Aryans, but the Syrians and Sudanese cannot be Aryans," the inference being, of course, that the European dolmens were built by a different race from that which built those of Syria and the Sudan. Unfortunately, however, the major premise is not completely true, for though it is true that Aryans did live in Europe at this time, there were also people in Europe who were not Aryans, and it is precisely among them that megalithic buildings occur.

The French archæologist Déchelette also condemns the idea of a single race. "Anthropological observations," he says, "have long since ruined this adventurous hypothesis." He does not tell us what these observations are, but we presume that he refers to the occurrence of varying skull types among the people buried in the megalithic tombs. Nothing is more natural than that some variation should occur. We are dealing with a race which made enormous journeys, and thus became contaminated by the various other races with which it came in contact. It may even have been a mixed race to start with. Thus even if we found skulls of very different types in the dolmens this would not in the least disprove the idea that dolmen building was introduced into various countries by one and the same race. It would be simply a case of the common anthropological fact that a race immigrating into an already inhabited country becomes to some extent modified by intermarriage with the earlier inhabitants. The measurements given in the last chapter would seem to show that despite local variation there is an underlying homogeneity in the skulls of the megalithic people.

It thus seems that the most probable theory of the origin of the megalithic monuments is that this style of building was brought to the various countries in which we find it by a single race in an immense migration or series of migrations. It is significant that this theory has been accepted by Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who is perhaps the first authority on the megalithic structures of the Mediterranean basin.

One question still remains to be discussed. From what direction did megalithic architecture come, and what was its original home? This is clearly a point which is not altogether dependent on the means by which this architecture was diffused. Montelius speaks in favour of an Asiatic origin. He considers that caves, and tombs accessible from above, i.e. simple pits dug in the earth, were native in Europe, while tombs reached from the side, such as dolmens and corridor-tombs, were introduced into Europe from the east. Salomon Reinach, arguing mainly from the early appearance of the objects found in the tombs of Scandinavia and the rarity of the simpler types of monument, such as the dolmen, in Germany and South Europe, suggests that megalithic monuments first appeared in North Europe and spread southwards. Mackenzie is more inclined to believe in an African origin. If he is right it may be that some climatic change, possibly the decrease of rainfall in what is now the Sahara desert, caused a migration from Africa to Europe very similar to that which many believe to have given to Europe its early neolithic population. The megalithic people may even have been a branch of the same vast race as the neolithic: this would explain the fact that both inhumed their dead in the contracted position.

It is probable that the problem will never be solved. The only way to attempt a solution would be to show that in some part of the megalithic area the structures were definitely earlier than in any other, and that as we move away from that part in any direction they become later and later. Such a means of solution is not hopeful, for the earliest form of structure, the dolmen, occurs in all parts of the area, and if we attempt to date by objects we are met by the difficulty that a dolmen in one place which contained copper might be earlier than one in another place which contained none, copper having been known in the former place earlier than in the latter.

It still remains to consider the question of the origin of the rock-hewn sepulchre and its relation to the megalithic monument. The rock-tomb occurs in Egypt, Phoenicia, Rhodes, Cyprus, Crete, South Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Pianosa, the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Isles, and France. In all these places there are examples which are certainly early, i.e. belong to the neolithic or early metal age, with the exception of Malta and perhaps Rhodes and Phoenicia. Two types are common, the chamber cut in the vertical face of rock and thus entered from the side, sometimes by a horizontal passage, and the chamber cut underground and entered from a vertical or sloping shaft placed not directly over the chamber, but immediately to one side of it. It is unlikely that these two types have a separate origin, for they are clearly determined by geological reasons. A piece of country where vertical cliffs or faces of rock abounded was suited to the first type, while the other alone was possible when the ground consisted of a flat horizontal surface of rock. We frequently find the two side by side and containing identically the same type of remains. In South-East Sicily we have the horizontal entrance in the tombs of the rocky gorge of Pantalica, while the vertical shaft is the rule in the tombs of the Plemmirio, only a few miles distant.

Two curious facts are noticeable with regard to the distribution of the rock-hewn tombs. In the first place they are all in the vicinity of the Mediterranean, and in the second some occur in the megalithic area, while others do not. The examples of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete show that this type of tomb flourished in the Eastern Mediterranean. Was it from here that the type was introduced into the megalithic area, or did the megalithic people bring with them a tradition of building rock-tombs totally distinct from that which is represented by the tombs of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete?

The question is difficult to answer. One thing alone is clear, that in certain places, such as Malta and Sardinia, the megalithic people were not averse to reproducing in the solid rock the forms which they more usually erected with large stones above ground. The finest instance of this is the Halsaflieni hypogeum in Malta, where the solid rock is hewn out with infinite care to imitate the form and even the details of surface building.

Similarly we have seen that both in Sardinia and in France the same forms of tomb were rendered in great stones or in solid rock almost indifferently.

There can therefore be no doubt that the hewing out of rock was practised by the megalithic people, and that they were no mean exponents of the art. We have no proof that they brought this art along with them from their original centre of dispersion, though if they did it is curious that they did not carry it into other countries where they penetrated besides those of the Mediterranean. It may be that early rock-tombs will yet be found in North Africa, but it seems improbable that, had they existed in the British Isles, in North Germany, or in Scandinavia, not a single example should have been found.

On the other hand, if the megalithic people did not bring the idea of the rock-tomb with them we must suppose either that it evolved among them after their migration, or that they adopted it from the Eastern Mediterranean. The last supposition is particularly unlikely, as it would involve the modification of a burial custom by foreign influence.

We have, in fact, no evidence on which to judge the question. Perhaps it is least unreasonable to suppose that the idea of the rock-tomb was brought into the megalithic area by the same people who introduced the megalithic monuments, and did not result from contact with the Eastern Mediterranean. Similarly we ought perhaps to disclaim any direct connection between the corridor-tombs of the megalithic area and the great _tholoi_ of Crete and the Greek mainland. At first sight there is a considerable similarity between them. The Treasury of Atreus at Mycenæ with its corbelled circular chamber and long rectangular corridor seems very little removed, except in size and finish, from the tombs of Gavr' Inis and Lough Crew. Yet there are vital points of difference. The two last are tombs built partly with upright slabs on the surface of the ground, entered by horizontal corridors, and covered with mounds. The Treasury of Atreus is simply an elaborated rock-tomb cut underground with a sloping shaft; as the ground consisted only of loose soil a coating of stone was a necessity, and hence the resemblance to a megalithic monument.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS

GENERAL

Fergusson, _Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries_ (London 1872). Bonstetten, _Essai sur les dolmens_ (Geneva 1865). Mortillet, _Compte rendu du congrès d'archéologie préhistorique_, Stockholm, 1874, pp. 267 ff. Reinach, _Le mirage oriental_, in _L'Anthropologie_, 1893, pp. 557 ff. Montelius, _Orient und Europa_. Borlase, _The Dolmens of Ireland_, Vols. II and III. Reinach, _Terminologie des monuments mégalithiques in Revue archéologique_, 3^{e} sér., XXII, 1893. Westropp, _Prehistoric Phases_ (London 1872).

ENGLAND AND WALES

Fergusson, _op. cit._ _Recent Excavations at Stonehenge, Archæologia_, LVIII, pp. 37 ff. Flinders Petrie, _Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, and Theories_ (London 1880). Windle, _Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England._ James, Sir Henry, _Plans and Photos of Stonehenge and of Turnsuchan in the Island of Lewis_ (Southampton 1867). Evans, Sir A., _Archæological Review_, II, 1889, pp. 313 ff. Lockyer, Sir N., _Nature_, November 21st, 1901. Hinks, _XIXth Century_, June, 1903, pp. 1002 ff. Lockyer, Sir N., _Nature_, LXXI, 1904-5, pp. 297 ff., 345 ff., 367 ff., 391 ff., 535 ff. Lewis, A. A., _Stone Circles in Britain, Archæological Journal_, XLIX, pp. 136 ff. Thurnam, _Ancient British Barrows, Archæologia_, XLII, pp. 161 ff., XLIII, pp. 285 ff. Lewis, A. A., _Prehistoric Remains in Cornwall, Journal of the Anthrop. Inst.,_ XXV, 1895, and XXXV, 1905. Kermode and Herdman, _Illustrated Notes on Manks Antiquities_ (Liverpool 1904).

SCOTLAND

Wilson, _The Archæological and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland._ Forbes Leslie, _Early Races of Scotland._ Spence, Magnus, _Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness._

IRELAND

Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland._ Lewis, A. A., _Some Stone Circles in Ireland_, in _Journal Anthrop. Inst.,_ XXXIX, pp. 517 ff.

SWEDEN

Montelius, _Orient und Europa._ Montelius, _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens._ Montelius, _Dolmens en France et en Suède_ (Le Mans 1907). Montelius, Graf från stenåldern, upptäckt vid Öringe i Ekeby socken, 1907. Nilsson, _Das Steinalter, oder die Ureinwohner des Scandinavischen Nordens_ (Hamburg 1865).

DENMARK

Montelius, _Orient und Europa._ Sophus Müller, _L'Europe préhistorique._ Sophus Müller, _Nordische Alterthumskunde._

HOLLAND

_Archæological Journal_, 1870, pp. 53 ff. _Journal Anthrop. Inst._, VI, 1876, p. 158. _Compte rendu du congrès d'arch. préhist._, Stockholm, 1874.

BELGIUM

Engelhardt, _Om stendysser og deres geografiske udbredelse_, in _Aarböger f. nord. Oldkynd._, 1870, pp. 177 ff.

GERMANY

Krause und Schoetensack in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1893 (Altmark only). Morlot, _L'archéologie du Meclenbourg_ (Zurich 1868). von Estorff, _Heidnische Altertümer der Gegend von Aelzen_ (Hanover 1846).

SWITZERLAND

Keller, _Pfahlbauten_, 3 Bericht (Zurich, 1860), p. 101; Pl. XI, Figs. 8 and 9.

FRANCE

Cartailhac, _La France préhistorique._ Bertrand in _Revue archéologique_, 1864 (List of monuments). Bertrand, _Archéologie celtique et gauloise_, 2nd edit., 1889. Déchelette, _Manuel d'archéologie préhistorique celtique et gallo-romaine_, Vol. I. Lewis, _Alignements at Autun_ in _Journal Anthrop. Inst._, XXXVIII, 1908, pp. 380 ff. Lewis, _On some dolmens of peculiar form, op. cit._, XL, 1910, pp. 336 ff. de Baye, _L'archéologie préhistorique_ (Petit-Morin tombs). Reinach, S., _La Sculpture en Europe_ (Angers 1896. Figures of the 'dolmen deity').

SPAIN

Cartailhac, _Âges préhistorique de l'Espagne_. Cartailhac, _Monuments primitifs des îles baléares_. Bezzenberger in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, XXXIX, 1907, pp. 567 ff.

ITALY

_Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana_, XXV, pp. 178 ff. Nicolucci, _Brevi note sui monumenti megalitici di Terra d'Otranto_, 1893. _Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXXVII, pp. 6 ff. Mosso and Samarelli, _Il dolmen di Bisceglie_, in _Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXXVI, pp. 26 ff. and 86 ff.

SICILY

Orsi in _Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXIV, pp. 202-3 (Monteracello). Orsi in _Ausonia_, 1907, pp. 1 ff. (Cava Lazzaro). Orsi in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1905, p. 432, Fig. 18 (Cava Lavinaro).

SARDINIA

La Marmora, _Voyage en Sardaigne_. Pinza in _Monumenti Antichi_, Vol. VIII. Nissardi in _Atti del Congresso Internazionale_, Roma, 1903, sezione preistorica. Nissardi and Taramelli in _Mon. Ant._, Vol. XVII. Taramelli in _Memnon_, Band II, Mai, 1908, pp. 1-35. Préchac in _Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire_, XXVIII. Mackenzie in _Ausonia_, III, 1908, pp. 18 ff. Mackenzie in _Memnon_, Vol. II, fasc. 3. Mackenzie in _Papers of the British School of Rome_, V, pp. 89 ff. Taramelli, _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1904, pp. 301 ff. (Anghelu Ruju). Colini in _Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana_, XXIV, pp. 252 ff.

CORSICA

_Nouvelles archives des missions scientifiques_, Vol. III, 1892, pp. 49 ff.

PIANOSA _Bullettino di Paletn. Ital._, XXIV, pp. 281 ff.

MALTA

Mayr, A., _Die vorgeschichtlichen Denkmäler von Malta_. Mayr, A., _Die Insel Malta_. Zammit, _First Report on the Halsaflieni Hypogeum_. Tagliaferro, _The Prehistoric Pottery found in the Hypogeum at Halsaflieni_, in _Annals of Archæology and Anthropology_, Vol. III, pp. 1 ff. Zammit and Peet, _Report on the small objects found at Halsaflieni_ (Valletta, in the Press). Magri, _Ruins of a Megalithic Temple at Xeuchia, Gozo_. Ashby, T., and others, _Report on Excavations at Corradino, Mnaidra, and Hagiar Kim_, appearing in Vol. VI of _Papers of the British School of Rome_. Peet, _Contributions to the Study of the Prehistoric Period in Malta, Papers of the British School of Rome_, V, pp. 141 ff. Tagliaferro, _Prehistoric Burials in a Cave at Burmeghez_, in Man, 1911, pp. 147 ff.

NORTH AFRICA

Faidherbe in _Compte rendu du congrès d'archéologie préhistorique_, Bruxelles, 1872, pp. 406 ff. Flower in _Transactions of the International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology_, Norwich, 1868, pp. 194 ff. MacIver and Wilkin, _Libyan Notes_.

MOROCCO

_Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, V, p. 342; VIII, p. 57; XX, p. 112.

TUNIS

Cartailhac in _L'Anthropologie_, 1903, pp. 620 ff. Carton in _L'Anthropologie_, 1891, pp. 1 ff. _Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, XXI, Pl. VI; XXII, pp. 373 and 416.

EGYPT AND THE SUDAN

Wilson and Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan_, Vol. II, p. 123. de Morgan, _Recherches sur l'origine de l'Egypte_, p. 239, Fig. 398.

PANTELLERIA

Orsi in _Monumenti Antichi_, IX, pp. 449 ff.

LAMPEDUSA

Ashby in _Annals of Archæology and Anthropology_, Vol. IV.

BULGARIA

_Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, 1888, pp. 285 ff. _L'Anthropologie_, 1890, p. 110.

CRIMEA

Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland_, III, p. 722.

CAUCASUS AND CRIMEA

Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_, Vol. I, pp. 50 ff. Chantre in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 344. _Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, 1885, pp. 545 ff. Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland_, III, p. 722.

SYRIA AND PALESTINE

_Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Reports_ for 1882; _Annual_, 1911, pp. 1 ff. Conder, _Heth and Moab_, pp. 190, 293. Perrot and Chipiez, IV, pp. 341, 378-9.

PERSIA

de Morgan in _Revue mensuelle de l'Ecole d'anthropologie de Paris_, 1902, p. 187. de Morgan, _La délégation en Perse_, 1902. de Morgan, _L'histoire d'Elam_, Paris, 1902.

INDIA

_Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, XXIV, 1865. Westropp, _Prehistoric Phases_.

COREA

_Journal Anthrop. Inst._, XXIV, p. 330.

JAPAN

Gowland in _Archæologia_, LV, pp. 439 ff. Gowland in _Journal Anthrop. Inst._, 1907, pp. 10 ff.

INDEX

Abbameiga, 85 Aberdeen, circles near, 38 Adrianople, 114 Africa, 90-6 Aiga, 85 Ain Dakkar, 117 Ainu, the, 122 Ala Safat, 116 Alemtejo, 71 Algeria, 91-5 _Alignements_, 3, 59-60, 89, 119-20, 124, 154-7 _Allées couvertes_, 3, 61, 64 Altar Stone at Stonehenge, 18 Altmark, 57 Ammân, 117 Ammon, 115 Anghelu Ruju, 88 Anglesey, 27, 29 Annaclochmullin, 145 Antequera, 70 Arbor Low, 25 Arcturus, 50, 51 Arles, 64 Arles, Council of, 12 Arran, circles on, 35-6 Arthur, King, 11, 25 Arthur's Quoit, 29 Asia, 114-22 Atreus, Treasury of, 157 Aurelius Ambrosius, 15 Avebury, 23-4, 27-8 Avening, 33, 127 Axe, cult of, 137-8 Axe-shaped pendants, 80, 112 Axevalla Heath, 54

Baetyls, 104, 105-6, 137 Balearic Isles, 71-5 Barnstone, the, 36-7 Barrows, long, 30-3 Barth, 90 Belgium, 58 Bellary, 118 Bell-shaped cup, 64, 81, 136 Beltane festival, 37 Benigaus Nou, 74 Bertrand, 64, 143 Birori, 82, 133 Bisceglie, 76 Bonstetten, 143 Borreby, 54-5 Boscawen-un, 26 Bou Merzoug, 92 Bou Nouara, 91 Boyle Somerville, Captain, 50 Brittany, 59-60 Brogar, Ring of, 36-7 Broholm, 54 Bulgaria, 114 Button, conical, 42, 71, 111, 135

Cæsar, 27 Cairns, horned, 38-9 Caithness, cairns of, 38-9 _Callaïs_, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71, 132 Callernish Circle, 34 Calvados, 64 Camster, 39 Can de Ceyrac, 60 Caouria, 89 Capella, 50, 51 Carnac, 13, 59-60 Carrick-a-Dhirra, 43 Carrickard, 45 Carrickglass, 41 Carrigalla, 49 Carrowmore, 41-2 Cashtal-yn-Ard, 145 Cassibile, 80 Castelluccio, 80, 81 Castor, 50 Caucasus, 114 Cava Lavinaro, 78 Cava Lazzaro, 78 Cave burial, 81, 88 Chagford, 29 Champ Dolent, menhir of, 13 Channel Isles, 67 Charlemagne, 12 Charlton's Abbott, 33 China, 122 Chittore, 119 Chun Quoit, 29 Circles, stone, 15-28, 34-8, 48-51, 60, 96, 115 Cirta, 92 Clava, 37 Clynnog Fawr, 128 Collorgues, 137 Constantine, 91 Contracted burials, 33, 54, 62, 77, 80, 81, 93, 97, 111, 140-1, 153 Coolback, 43 Corbelled roofs, 6, 32, 45, 48, 69, 73, 84, 86, 87, 102-3 Cordin, 105, 108 Corea, 122 Cornwall, dolmens in, 29 monuments of, 26 Corridor-tombs, 3, 43-8, 52-5, 56-8, 62-4, 67-71, 76-7, 96, 118, 120-2 Corse, Cape, 89 Corsica, 88-9 Coursed masonry, use of, 5, 73, 82 Cove, the, 25 Cremation, 35, 42, 66, 140 Crete, 113, 132, 142, 155, 157 Crickstone, the, 30 Crimea, 114 Cromlechs, 3 Cumberland, monuments of, 25 Cup-markings, 117, 127-8 Cyprus, 155 Cyrenaica, 91

Dance Maen Circle, 26 Date of megaliths, 123 Dax, 64 Deccan, 118-9 Déchelette, 139, 151 de Morgan, 90 Denmark, 53-5 Dennis, 76 Der Ghuzaleh, 116 Dolmens, 2, 29, 40-1, 52-3, 56, 58, 61, 67-8, 82, 89, 90, 91-6, 108, 114-9 Drawings on stones, 46, 48, 55, 62, 110 Drewsteignton, 29 Druids, 11, 27-8

Edfu, 90 Eguilaz, 68 Egypt, 155 Ellez, 96 England, monuments of, 15-33 Erdeven, 60 Er-Lanic, 60 Eskimos, 126 Es Tudons, _nau_ of, 73-4 Evans, Sir Arthur, 20, 105

Façades, curved, 78, 145-6 Faidherbe, General, 143 Faustina, medal of, 95 Féraud, M., 92-3 Fergusson, 28, 143 Fibrolite, 63 Finistère, dolmens of, 13 Fontanaccia, 89 Fonte Coberta, 68 Forbes Leslie, Colonel, 119 France, 59-67 Friar's Heel, 18, 21

Galilee, 115 Gargantua, 11 Gaulstown, 41 Gavr'inis, 62, 137 Gebel Mousa, 116 Geoffrey of Monmouth, 26 Ger, 64 Germany, 56-7 Get, 39 Gezer, 124 Giant's Bed, 56 Giant's Tombs, 87-8 Gigantia, 104

Giraldus Cambrensis, 15 Göhlitzsch, 137 Gozo, Is., 104 Greenland, 125 Grewismühlen, 56 Grotte des Fées, 64, 74 Grotte du Castellet, 64

Hagiar Kim, 6, 103-4 Hakpen Hill, 24, 27 Halsaflieni, 108-13, 130 Hauptville's Quoit, 25 Hengist, 15 Herrestrup, 53 Highwood, 45 Hinks, Mr., 22 Hirdmane Stone, 13 Holed tombs, 77, 114, 116, 117, 126-7 Holland, 57-8 Horned cairns, 146 _Hünenbetter_, 45, 56-8 Hurlers, the, 26

Idanha a Nova, 139 India, 118-20 Inigo Jones, 27 Inverness, circles in, 37-8 Ireland, monuments of, 40-51 Iron, 39, 46, 93, 119 Italy, 76-7

Jadeite, 63 James I, 27 Japan, 120-2 Jaulân, 117 Jimmu, 121 Judæa, 115

Karleby, 54 Karnak (Egypt), 22 Keamcorravooly, 44 Keller, 56 Kennet Avenue, 24 Kerlescan, 60 Kermario, 60 Keswick Circle, 25 Khasi Hills, 119 Kingarth, circle at, 36 Kirkabrost, circle at, 36 Kit's Coty House, 29 Knyttkärr, 55 Komei, 121 Kosseir, 118

Labbamologa, 43 Ladò, 90 Lampedusa, Isle of, 96 Lanyon Quoit, 29, 127 La Perotte, 7 Leaba Callighe, 43 Lecce, 76 Lewis, Isle of, 34 Linosa, Isle of, 96, 132 Lockyer, Sir Norman, 21-2, 51 Long Meg and her daughters, 25 Losa, 85 Los Millares, 70, 137, 145 Lough Crew, 45, 48, 62 Lough Gur, 48-51 Lozère, 130 Lundhöj, 55 Lüttich, 58

MacIver, D.R., 93-4 Mackenzie, Duncan, 85, 152, 153 Maeshowe, 36-7 Malta, 98-113 Man, Isle of, 30 Mané-er-Hroeck, 62-3 Marcella, 68 Matera, 77 Maughold, 30 Mayborough Circle, 25 Mayr, Albert, 105 Meayll Hill, 30 Melilli, 80 Men-an-tol, 30 Ménec, 59 Menhirs, 2, 29, 59, 115-6, 123-4 cult of, 12, 123-4 Merivale, circle at, 26 Merlin, 15 Merry Maidens, the, 26 Messa, 90 Minieh, 116 Mnaidra, 100-3 Moab, 115-7 Molafà, 88 Monte Abrahaõ, 71 Montelius, O., 126, 151, 153 Monteracello, 78 Morocco, 96 Mortillet, de, 59, 144 Mourzouk, 90 Msila, 93 Munster, tombs of, 44 Mursia, 97 Musta, 108 Mycenean vases, 81

Naas, 15 Nantes, Council of, 12 Nara, 121 _Naus_, 73-4, 145 _Navetas_, see _Naus_ Neermul jungle, 118 Newbliss, 145 New Grange, 46, 62 Nile valley, 90 Nilgiri Hills, 118 Nine Maidens, the, 26 Nissardi, 84 Norway, 53 Nossiu, 85, 87 _Nuraghi_, 82-7

Obsidian, 77, 134 Odin's Stone, 11, 36 Orkney Isles, cairns of, 38-9 Orry's Grave, 30, 127 Orsi, Paolo, 78, 79 Orthostatic slabs, use of, 4, 69, 74, 80, 96, 100

Palmella, 71 Pantalica, 80, 155 Pantelleria, Isle of, 96-8 Papa-Westra, 39 Pehada, 114 Penrith Circle, 11 Pentre Ifan, 29 Pera, 115 Périgord, 13 Persia, 114 Petit Morin, 66-7, 130 Pfäffikon, Lake, 56 Phoenicia, 154 Pianosa, 89 Picardt, John, 57 Pierre du Diable, La, 58 Pierres Plates, Les, 61 Piper, the, 26 Plas Newydd, 29, 127 Plemmirio, 155 Pliny, 27 Portico-dolmens, 40-1, 52, 119 Portugal, 67 Pottery, 135-6

Reinach, Salomon, 144 Religion, megalithic, 105-6, 137-9 Rhodes, 154 Rinaiou, 89 Rock-tombs, 3, 66-7, 71, 74, 79-81, 88 Rockbarton, 48 Rodmarton, 33, 127 Roknia, 94 Rollright Circle, 25, 29, 50

Saint George, 88 Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, 12 Saint Michel, Mont, 63 Saint Pantaléon, 60 Saint Sermin, 139 Saint Vincent, 74 Sant' Elia, Cape, 88 Sardinia, 82-8 S'Aspru, 85 Scandinavia, 52-5 Scotland, monuments of, 34-9 Sculptures, 67, 138 Secondary burial, 79, 141-2 Senâm, the, 93-4 Seriphos, 139 Serucci, 85 _Sesi_, the, 97-8 Shap, circle at, 23 Sicily, 77-82 Sidbury Hill, 21 Sidon, 115 Siggewi, 108 Silbury Hill, 24, 28 Siret, Messieurs, 68 Sjöbol, 53 Skulls, 77, 112, 129-31 Sorapoor, 118 Spain, 67-71 Spence, Magnus, 37 Stanton Drew, 25, 49 Star-worship, 23, 50-1, 128 Steatopygous figures, 107, 112 Stenness, Ring of, 36 Stonehenge, 15-23 Stoney-Littleton, 32 Stripple Stones, the, 26 Stromness, circle at, 36 Stukeley, Dr., 27 Su Cadalanu, 84 Sudan, 90 Suetonius, 27 Sun-worship, 21-3, 28-9, 37, 51 Sweden, 52-5 Switzerland, 56 Syria, 115-8

Table des Marchands, La, 16, 137 Tagliaferro, Professor, 108, 111 Tahutihotep, tomb of, 8 _Talayots_, 71-3 Tamuli, 139 Tangier, 96 Tarentum, 76 Tattooing, 139 "Three Brothers of Grugith," the, 128 Tiberias, 115 Tinaarloo, 57 Toledo, Council of, 12 Torebo, 53 Tours, Council of, 12 Trade relations, 131-3 Tregeseal, circles near, 26 Trepanned skulls, 62 Trilithons, 2, 17, 90, 100-1, 103-4, 117 Tripoli, 90-1 _Truddhi_, 86 Tsîl, 117-8 Tunis, 95-6 Tyfta, 54 Tyre, 115 Tzarskaya, 114

Unebi, Mt., 121

Vail Gorguina, 67 Vellore, 118 Villafrati, 81 Villages, megalithic, 74, 85-6, 97

Wales, monuments of, 29 Watchstone, the, 36-7 Wayland the Smith's Cave, 11, 14, 30, 32 Wedge-shaped tomb, 44-5, 55, 70-1, 117 Westgothland, 54 West Tump, 146

Yarhouse, 39

Zammit, Dr. T., 112

WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD. PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH

------------------------------------------------ | | | HARPER'S LIBRARY OF LIVING THOUGHT | | | | _Foolscap 8vo, gilt tops, decorative covers, | | richly gilt backs | | | | Per Volume: Cloth 2s. 6d. net, Leather | | 3s. 6d. net._ | |-----------------------------------------------| | | | By Prof. ARTHUR KEITH, M.D. | |(Hunterian Professor Royal College of Surgeons)| | | | ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN | | | | _Illustrated_ | | | | | | From discoveries of ancient human remains | | made within the last half-century, | | anthropologists are now able to place in | | order changes that have taken place in the | | posture, gait, height, and to some extent | | the habits of man during a period of at | | least a half-million years. Prof. Keith, who | | is one of the foremost investigators in this | | field, tells the story of the various forms | | which the body of the man has assumed, in a | | lucid and attractive way. | | | | "The kind of book that only a master of his | | subject could write. It must interest every | | thinking person."--_British Medical | | Journal._ | | | -------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------- | | | Harper's Library of Living Thought | | | |-----------------------------------------------| | | | By Prof W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE | | | | PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT | | BEFORE CHRISTIANITY | | | | | | "The author gauges what ideas were already | | part of the religious thought in the first | | century, and what were the terms and ideas | | in Christianity which were new to mankind. | | The current literature of the time was as | | naturally taken for granted by Christians as | | were the books of the Old Testament which | | were familiar to them. The separation of the | | new ideas in the teaching of Christ and of | | the Apostles from the general terms of | | religion at the time, is the only road to | | understanding what Christianity meant to | | those who actually heard the teaching." | | | | _Notts Guardian._ | | | | "A suggestive and thought-provoking book, a | | real contribution to the study of | | comparative religion." | | | | _Methodist Recorder._ | | | | | -----------------------------------------------

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----------------------------------------------- | | | Harper's Library of Living Thought | | | |-----------------------------------------------| | | | By Prof. W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE | | | | THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION | | | | _Illustrated_ | | | | | | In the light of history--so enormously | | extended in recent years--the author surveys | | the waxing and waning of civilisation as | | evidenced in sculpture, painting, | | literature, mechanics, and wealth. In | | tracing the various forces at work in this | | fluctuation he arrives at most significant | | conclusions, notably in connection with race | | mixture and forms of government. | | | | "We know nothing that exhibits in so brief a | | compass the extraordinary vicissitudes of | | human progress and retrogression since the | | dawn of history."--_Birmingham Post._ | | | -------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------ | | | Harper's Library of Living Thought | | | |-----------------------------------------------| | | | By CHARLES H. HAWES, M.A., and | | HARRIET B. HAWES, M.A., L.H.D. | | | | CRETE, THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE | | | | _Map, Plans, etc._ | | | | | | "The wondrous story of a great civilisation | | which flourished before Abraham was born, | | and left behind a memory of itself in the | | Arts of Ancient Greece and in the traditions | | of a golden age and a 'Lost | | Atlantis.'"--_Evening Standard._ | | | | "We have now the material for forming a very | | fair conception of the fruitful contribution | | made by Crete to Grecian and European | | civilisation. What was long accounted | | fable--statements of Herodotus and | | Thucydides--have been turned into | | established fact. The book supplies material | | for forming judgments on some of the most | | interesting and still highly debated | | problems of early Greek history." | | _Glasgow Herald._ | | | -------------------------------------------------

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