CHAPTER XL

Chapter 2237,294 wordsPublic domain

1814–1815

The Congress of Vienna—Monarchs and Diplomatists present—History of the Congress—Treaty between France, Austria, and England—The Questions of Saxony and Poland—The German Confederation—Disposition of the provinces on the left bank of the Rhine—Mayence and Luxembourg—Reconstitution of Switzerland—Rearrangements in Italy—Questions of Murat, Genoa, and the Empress Marie Louise—Sweden—Denmark—Spain—Portugal—England’s share of the spoil—The Questions of the Slave Trade and the Navigation of Rivers—Close of the Congress—Preparations against Napoleon—The first reign of Louis XVIII. in France—Napoleon’s return from Elba—The Hundred Days—The Campaign of Waterloo—Occupation of Paris—Second Treaty of Paris—Napoleon sent to Saint Helena—The Holy Alliance—Return of Louis XVIII.—Government of the Second Restoration—The Chambre Introuvable—Reaction in Spain and Naples—Territorial Results of the Congress of Vienna—The Principle of Nationality—Permanent Results of the French Revolution in Europe—The Problem of harmonising the Principles of Individual and Political Liberty with that of Nationality.

[Sidenote: Congress of Vienna.]

On the 1st of November 1814 the diplomatists who were to resettle Europe as arranged by the definitive Treaty of Paris met at Vienna. But many of the monarchs most concerned felt that they could not give their entire confidence to any diplomatist, however faithful or distinguished, and they therefore came to Vienna in person to support their views. The final decision of disputes obviously lay in the hands of the four powers which by their union had conquered Napoleon. These four powers solemnly agreed to act in harmony and to prepare all questions privately, and then lay them before the Congress. In fact they intended to impose their will upon the smaller states of Europe just as Napoleon had done. That they did not succeed and that their concert was broken was due to the extraordinary ability of Talleyrand, the first French plenipotentiary. The history of the Congress is the history of Talleyrand’s skilful diplomacy, and the resettlement of Europe which it effected was therefore largely the work of France.

[Sidenote: Monarchs and Diplomatists present.]

The Emperor Francis of Austria acted as host to his illustrious guests. The royalties present were the Emperor Alexander of Russia, with his Empress, the Grand Duke Constantine, and his sisters, the Grand Duchesses Marie of Saxe-Weimar and Catherine of Oldenburg; the King of Prussia with his nephew Prince William; the King and Queen of Bavaria, the King and Crown Prince of Würtemburg, the King of Denmark, the Prince of Orange, the Grand Dukes of Baden, Saxe-Weimar, and Hesse-Cassel, the Dukes of Brunswick, Nassau, and Saxe-Coburg. The King of Saxony was a prisoner of war and absent.

The plenipotentiaries of Russia were Count Razumovski, Count von Stackelberg, and Count Nesselrode, who were assisted by Stein, the former Prussian minister, and one of Alexander’s most trusted advisers, by Pozzo di Borgo, the Corsican, now appointed Russian ambassador to Paris, by Count Capo d’Istria, the future President of Greece, by Prince Adam Czartoryski, one of the most patriotic Poles, and by some of the most famous Russian Generals, such as Chernishev and Wolkonski. The Austrian plenipotentiaries were Prince Metternich, the State Chancellor, the Baron von Wessenberg-Ampfingen, and Friedrich von Gentz, who was appointed to act as Secretary to the Congress.

England was represented by Lord Castlereagh, Lord Cathcart, Lord Clancarty, and Lord Stewart, Castlereagh’s brother, who as Sir Charles Stewart had played so great a part in the negotiations in 1813, and who had been created a peer for his services. The English plenipotentiaries were also aided by Count von Hardenberg, and Count von Münster, who were deputed to represent Hanoverian interests. The Prussian plenipotentiaries were Prince von Hardenberg, the State Chancellor, and William von Humboldt, who in military matters were advised by General von Knesebeck. The French representatives, whose part was to be so important, were Talleyrand, Prince of Benevento, the Duc de Dalberg, nephew of the Prince Primate, the Marquis de la Tour du Pin, and the Comte Alexis de Noailles. These were the representatives of the great powers. Among the representatives of the lesser powers may be noted from the importance of their action, Cardinal Consalvi, who represented the Pope, the Count of Labrador for Spain, Count Palmella for Portugal, Count Bernstorf for Denmark, Count Löwenhielm for Sweden, the Marquis de Saint-Marsan for Sardinia, the Duke di Campo-Chiaro for Murat, King of Naples, Ruffo, for Ferdinand King of the Two Sicilies, Prince von Wrede for Bavaria, Count Wintzingerode for Würtemburg, and Count von Schulemburg for Saxony. In addition to these plenipotentiaries representing powers of the first and second rank, were innumerable representatives of petty principalities, deputies for the free cities of Germany, and even agents for petty German princes mediatised by Napoleon in 1806.

[Sidenote: History of the Congress.]

When Talleyrand with the French legation arrived in Vienna he found, as has been said, that the four great powers had formed a close union in order to control the Congress. His first step therefore was to set France forth as the champion of the second-rate states of Europe. The Count of Labrador, the Spanish representative, strongly resented the conduct of the great powers in pretending to arrange matters, as they called it, for the Congress. Talleyrand skilfully made use of Labrador, and through him and Palmella, Bernstorf and Löwenhielm managed to upset the preconcerted ideas of the four allies, and insisted on every matter being brought before the Congress as a whole, and being prepared by small committees specially selected for that purpose. His next step was to sow dissension amongst the great powers. As the champion of the smaller states he had already made France of considerable importance, and he then claimed that she too had a right to be treated as a great power and not as an enemy. His argument was that Europe had fought Napoleon and not France; that Louis XVIII. was the legitimate monarch of France; and that any disrespect shown to him or his ambassadors would recoil on the heads of all other legitimate monarchs. He claimed that France had as much right to make her voice heard in the resettlement of Europe as any other country, because the allied monarchs had distinctly recognised that she was only to be thrust back into her former limits and not to be expunged from the map of Europe. Having made his claim good on the right of the legitimacy of his master to speak for France as a great power equal in all respects to the others, he proceeded to sow dissension among the representatives of the four allied monarchs. This was not a difficult thing to do, for the seeds of dissension had long existed. The difference he introduced was that in speaking as a fifth great power, and as the champion of the smaller states, France became the arbiter in the chief questions before the Congress.

The division between the great powers was caused by the desire of Russia and Prussia for the aggrandisement of their territories. The Emperor Alexander wished to receive the whole of Poland. His idea, which was inspired by his friend, Prince Adam Czartoryski, was to form Poland into an independent kingdom ruled, however, by himself as Emperor of Russia. The Poles were to have a new Constitution based on that propounded in 1791, and the Czar of Russia was to be also King of Poland, just as in former days the Electors of Saxony had been Kings of Poland, but he was to be an hereditary, not an elected, sovereign. To form once more a united Poland, Austria and Prussia were to surrender their gains in the three partitions of Poland. Austria was to receive compensation for her loss of Galicia in Italy; Prussia was to be compensated for the loss of Prussian Poland by receiving the whole of Saxony. As it had been already arranged that Prussia was to receive the bulk of the Rhenish territory on the left bank of the Rhine in addition to her great extensions of 1803, the result would be to make Prussia by far the greatest power in Germany. Talleyrand was acute enough to perceive that Lord Castlereagh did not approve of the extension of the influence of Russia, and that Metternich was equally indisposed to allow Prussia to obtain such a wholesale aggrandisement. Saxony had been the faithful ally of France to the very last, and Talleyrand felt that it would be an indelible stain on the French name if it were thus sacrificed. He was cordially supported in this view by his new master, for though the King of Saxony had been the faithful ally of Napoleon, Louis XVIII. did not forget that his own mother was a Saxon princess. Working, therefore, on the feelings of Castlereagh and Metternich, he induced England and Austria to declare against the scheme of Russia and Prussia.

The Emperor Alexander and Frederick William blustered loudly; they declared that they were in actual military possession of Poland and of Saxony, and that they would hold those states by force of arms against all comers. In answer, Talleyrand, Castlereagh, and Metternich signed a treaty of mutual alliance between France, England, and Austria, on the 3d of January 1815. By this secret treaty the three powers bound themselves to resist by arms the schemes of Russia and Prussia, and in the face of their determined opposition the Emperor Alexander gave way. Immediately Napoleon returned from Elba he found the draft treaty between the three powers on the table of Louis XVIII. and at once sent it to Alexander. That monarch, confronted with the danger threatened by Napoleon’s landing in France, contented himself with showing the draft to Metternich and then threw it in the fire. The whole of this strange story is of the utmost interest; it proves not only the ability of Talleyrand, but the inherent strength of France. It is most significant that within a few months after the occupation of Paris by the allies for the first time France should again be recognised as a great power, and form the main factor in breaking up the cohesion of the alliance, which had been formed against her.

[Sidenote: Secret Treaty of 3d Jan. 1815]

[Sidenote: Treaty of Ghent. Dec. 24, 1814.]

[Sidenote: Settlement of Saxony.]

The result of Talleyrand’s skilful policy was thus to unite England, Austria, and France, supported by many of the secondary states, such as Bavaria and Spain, against the pretensions of Prussia and Russia. Powerful armies were immediately set on foot. France in particular raised her military forces from 130,000 to 200,000 men, and her new army was in every way superior to that with which Napoleon had fought his defensive campaigns in 1814, for it contained the veteran soldiers who had been blockaded in the distant fortresses or had been prisoners of war. England too was enabled to make adequate preparations, for on December the 24th, 1814, a treaty had been signed at Ghent between the United States and England which put an end to the war which had been proceeding ever since 1812 on account of England’s naval pretensions. Bavaria also promised to put in the field 30,000 men for every 100,000 supplied by Austria. Although the secret treaty of January 3d was not divulged until after the return of Napoleon from Elba, the determined attitude of the opposition caused the Emperor Alexander to give way. It was decided that instead of the whole of Saxony, Prussia should only receive the district of Lusatia, together with the towns of Torgau and Wittenberg; a territory which embraced half the area of Saxony and one-third of its population. The King of Saxony, who had been treated as a prisoner of war, and whom the Emperor of Russia had even threatened to send to Siberia, was released from captivity, and induced by the Duke of Wellington, who succeeded Lord Castlereagh as English plenipotentiary in February 1815, to agree to these terms. The salvation of Saxony was a matter of great gratification to Louis XVIII., who remembered that though the king had been the faithful ally of Napoleon, he was also his own near relative.

[Sidenote: Settlement of Poland.]

Since Prussia was obliged to give up her claim to the whole of Saxony, Russia also had to withdraw from her scheme of uniting the whole of Poland. Nevertheless, Russia retained the lion’s share of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw; in 1774 her frontier had reached the Dwina and the Dnieper; in 1793 she obtained half of Lithuania as far as Wilna; in 1795 she annexed the rest of Lithuania and touched the Niémen and the Bug; in 1809 Napoleon had granted her the territory containing the sources of the Bug; and now in 1815 her borders crossed the Vistula, and by the annexation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, including that city, penetrated for some distance between Eastern Prussia and Galicia. Prussia received back its share of the two first partitions of Poland, with the addition of the province of Posen and the city of Thorn, but lost Warsaw and its share in the last partition; while Austria received Cracow, which was to be administered as a free city. Alexander was deeply disappointed by the frustration of his Polish schemes, but he nevertheless kept his promise to Prince Adam Czartoryski and granted a representative constitution and a measure of independence to Russian Poland.

[Sidenote: The Germanic Confederation.]

Though the great diplomatic struggle arose over the combined question of Saxony and Poland, the most important work of the Congress was not confined to it alone. Committees were appointed to make new arrangements for Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and to settle other miscellaneous questions. Of these committees the most important was that which reorganised Germany. It had been arranged by the secret articles of the Treaty of Paris that a Germanic Confederation should take the place of the Holy Roman Empire. The example of Napoleon and his institution of the Confederation of the Rhine was followed and developed. Instead of the hundreds of small states which had existed at the commencement of the French Revolution, Germany, apart from Austria and Prussia, was organised into only thirty-eight states. These were the four kingdoms of Hanover, Bavaria, Würtemburg, and Saxony; the seven grand duchies of Baden, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Saxe-Weimar; the nine duchies of Nassau, Brunswick, Saxe-Gotha, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Hildburghausen, Anhalt-Dessau, Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Köthen; eleven principalities, two of Schwartzburg, two of Hohenzollern, two of Lippe, two of Reuss, Hesse-Homburg, Liechtenstein, and Waldeck, and the four free cities of Hamburg, Frankfort, Bremen, and Lübeck. The number of thirty-eight was made up by the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, belonging to the King of Denmark, and the grand duchy of Luxembourg, granted to the King of the Netherlands. In its organisation the Germanic Confederation resembled the Confederation of the Rhine. The Diet of the Confederation was to be always presided over by Austria and was to consist of two Chambers. The Ordinary Assembly was composed of seventeen members, one for each of the larger states, one for the free cities combined, one for Brunswick, one for Nassau, one for the four duchies of Saxony united, one for the three duchies of Anhalt united, and one for the smaller principalities. This Assembly was to sit permanently at Frankfort and to settle all ordinary matters. In addition there was to be a General Assembly to be summoned intermittently for important subjects, consisting of sixty-nine members returned by the different states in proportion to their size and population. Each state was to be supreme in internal matters, but private wars against each other were forbidden as well as external wars by individual states on powers outside the limits of the Confederacy. In the territorial arrangements of the new Confederation, the most important point is the disappearance of all ecclesiastical states. The Prince-Primacy, which Napoleon had established in his Confederation of the Rhine, was not maintained, and Dalberg, who had filled that office throughout the Empire, was restricted to his ecclesiastical functions.

[Sidenote: Territorial arrangements on the Rhine.]

The most difficult problem to be decided was the final disposition of the districts on the left bank of the Rhine, which had been ruled by France ever since 1794. It had been settled by the secret articles at Paris that these dominions should be used for the establishment of strong powers upon the borders of France. The main difficulty was as to the disposition of the important border fortresses of Mayence and Luxembourg. Prussia laid claim to both these places, but was strongly resisted by Austria, France, and the smaller states of Germany. It was eventually resolved that Prussia should receive the northern territory on the left bank of the Rhine, stretching from Elten to Coblentz, and including Cologne, Trèves, and Aix-la-Chapelle. In compensation for the Tyrol and Salzburg, which she was forced to return to Austria, and in recognition of her former sovereignty in the Palatinate, Bavaria was granted a district from the Prussian borders to Alsace, including Mayence, which was designated Rhenish Bavaria. Finally, Luxembourg was formed into a grand duchy, and given as a German state to the House of Orange. It was not united to the new kingdom of the Netherlands, which was formed out of Holland and Belgium, but was to retain its independence under the sovereignty of the King of the Netherlands. The union of the provinces of the Netherlands was one of the favourite schemes of England, and was carried into effect in spite of the well-known feeling of opposition between the Catholic provinces of Belgium and the Protestant provinces of Holland.

[Sidenote: Switzerland.]

As in its reorganisation of Germany, so in the settlement of Switzerland, the Congress of Vienna followed the example set by Napoleon. The Emperor had quite given up the idea which had fascinated the French Directory of forming Switzerland into a Republic, one and indivisible. He had yielded to the wishes of the Swiss people themselves, and organised them on the basis of a confederation of independent cantons. The Congress of Vienna continued Napoleon’s policy of forbidding the existence of subject cantons in spite of the protests of the Canton of Berne. Napoleon’s cantons of Argau, Thurgau, Saint-Gall, the Grisons, the Ticino, and the Pays de Vaud were maintained, but the number of the cantons was raised from nineteen to twenty-two by the formation of the three new cantons of Geneva, the Valais, and Neufchâtel, which had formed part of the French Empire. The Canton of Berne received in reply to its importunities the greater part of the former Bishopric of Basle. The Swiss Confederation as thus constituted was placed under the guarantee of the great powers and declared neutral for ever. The Helvetic Constitution, which was promulgated by a Federal Act dated the 7th of April 1815, was not quite so liberal as Napoleon’s Constitution. Greater independence was secured in that the constitutions of the separate cantons and organic reforms in them had not to be submitted to the Federal Diet. The prohibition against internal custom houses was removed. The presidency of the Diet was reserved to Zurich, Berne, and Lucerne alternately, and the Helvetic Diet became a Congress of Delegates like the Germanic Diet rather than a Legislative Assembly. It is to be noted that in spite of the declaration of the Congress of Vienna, Prussia refused to renounce her claims on her former territory of Neufchâtel, the independence of which as a Swiss canton was not recognised by her until 1857.

[Sidenote: Italy.]

The resettlement of Italy presented more than one special problem. The most difficult of these to solve was caused by the engagements entered into by the allies with Murat in 1814. Talleyrand, on behalf of the King of France, insisted on the dethronement and expulsion of Murat, while Metternich from friendship for Caroline Murat wished to retain him in his kingdom. The Emperor Alexander, whoever prided himself on his fidelity to his engagements, wished to protect Murat, and had at Vienna struck up a warm friendship with Eugène de Beauharnais, Napoleon’s Viceroy of Italy. Murat, ungrateful though he was personally toward Napoleon, had yet imbibed his master’s ideas in favour of the unity and independence of Italy. During the campaign of 1814, he had led his army to the banks of the Po, and he persisted in remaining there after the Congress of Vienna had met. But the diplomatists at Vienna had no wish to accept the great idea of Italian unity. Murat’s aspirations in this direction were most annoying to them, and it was with real pleasure that they heard after the landing of Napoleon from Elba that Murat had by an indiscreet proclamation given them an excuse for an open declaration of war. The Duke di Campo-Chiaro, Murat’s representative at Vienna, had kept him informed of the differences between the allied powers, and an indiscreet note asking whether he was to be considered as at peace or at war with the House of Bourbon gave the plenipotentiaries their opportunity. War was immediately declared against him; an Austrian army defeated him at Tolentino on the 3d of May 1815, and he was forced to fly from Italy. The acceptance of Murat’s ambassador, who spoke in his name as King of the Two Sicilies, made it difficult for the Congress to know how to treat with Ruffo who had been sent as ambassador by Ferdinand, the Bourbon King of the Two Sicilies, who had maintained his power in the island of Sicily through the presence of the English garrison. Acting on the ground of legitimacy, it was difficult to reject Ferdinand’s claims, which were warmly supported by France and Spain, but Murat’s ill-considered behaviour solved the difficulty, and after his defeat Ferdinand was recognised as King of the Two Sicilies. Murat, later in the year, landed in his former dominions, but he was taken prisoner and promptly shot.

Another Italian question which presented considerable difficulty was the disposal of Genoa and the surrounding territory. When Lord William Bentinck occupied that city, he had in the name of England promised it independence and even hinted at the unity of Italy. Castlereagh unfortunately felt it to be his duty to disavow Bentinck’s declaration, and Genoa was united to Piedmont as part of the kingdom of Sardinia. The third difficult question was the creation of a state for the Empress Marie Louise. An independent sovereignty had been promised to her. She was naturally supported by her father, the Emperor Francis of Austria, and was ably represented at Vienna by her future husband, Count Neipperg. It was eventually resolved that she should receive the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, but the succession was not secured to her son, the King of Rome, but was granted to the rightful heir, the King of Etruria, who, until the succession fell in, was to rule at Lucca. The other arrangements in Italy were comparatively simple. Austria received the whole of Venetia and Lombardy, in the place of Mantua and the Milanese, which she had possessed before 1789. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, with the principality of Piombino, was restored to the Grand Duke Ferdinand, the uncle of the Emperor Francis of Austria, with the eventual succession to the Duchy of Lucca. The Pope received back his dominions including the Legations of Bologna and Ferrara, and Duke Francis, the grandson of Hercules III., was recognised as Duke of Modena, to which duchy he would have succeeded had not Napoleon absorbed it in his kingdom of Italy.

[Sidenote: Other States.]

[Sidenote: Sweden.]

[Sidenote: Denmark.]

[Sidenote: Spain.]

[Sidenote: Portugal.]

[Sidenote: England.]

The arrangements with regard to the other states of Europe made at the Congress of Vienna were comparatively unimportant, and did not present the same difficult problems as the resettlement of Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. Norway in spite of its disinclination was definitely ceded to Sweden, but Bernadotte had to restore to France the West-Indian island of Guadeloupe, which had been handed over to him by England in 1813, as part of the price of his alliance. Denmark had by the Treaty of Kiel with Bernadotte been promised Swedish Pomerania in the place of Norway. This promise was not carried out. Denmark like Saxony had been too faithful an ally of Napoleon not to be made to suffer. Swedish Pomerania was given to Prussia, and Denmark only received the small Duchy of Lauenburg. By these arrangements both Sweden and Denmark were greatly weakened, and the Scandinavian States, by the loss of Finland and Pomerania, surrendered to their powerful neighbours, Prussia and Russia, the command of the Baltic Sea. Spain, owing to the ability of the Count of Labrador, and the support of Talleyrand, not only lost nothing except the island of Trinidad, which had been conquered by England, but was allowed to retain the district round Olivenza, which had been ceded to her by Portugal in 1801. The desertion of Portugal by England in this particular is the chief blot on Lord Castlereagh’s policy at Vienna. The Portuguese army had fought gallantly with Wellington, and there was no reason why she should have been forced to consent to the definite cession of Olivenza to Spain when other countries were winning back their former borders. Portugal was also made to surrender French Guiana and Cayenne to France. England, though she had borne the chief pecuniary stress of the war and had been more instrumental than any other power in overthrowing Napoleon, received less compensation than any other country. She kept Malta, thus settling the question which led to the rupture of the Peace of Amiens; she received Heligoland, which was ceded to her by Denmark, as commanding the mouth of the Elbe; and she was also granted the protectorate of the Ionian Islands, which enabled her to close the Adriatic. Among colonial possessions England took from France the Mauritius, Tobago, and Saint Lucia, but she returned Martinique and the Isle of Bourbon, and forced Sweden and Portugal to restore Guadeloupe and French Guiana. With regard to Holland, England retained Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope, but she restored Java, Curaçao, and the other Dutch possessions. In the West Indies also, she retained, as has been said, the former Spanish island of Trinidad.

[Sidenote: The Slave Trade.]

[Sidenote: The Navigation of Rivers.]

One reason for Castlereagh’s moderation at Vienna is to be found in the pressure that was exerted upon him in England to secure the abolition of the slave trade. It is a curious fact that while the English plenipotentiary was taking such an important share in the resettlement of Europe, the English people were mainly interested in the question of the slave trade. The great changes which were leading to new combinations in Europe, the aggrandisement of Prussia, the reconstitution of Germany, the extension of Austria, all passed without notice, but meetings, in Lord Castlereagh’s own words, were held in nearly every village to insist upon his exerting his authority to abolish the trade in negro slaves. Castlereagh therefore lent his best efforts, in obedience to his constituents, to this end. The other ambassadors could not understand why he troubled so much about what seemed to them a trivial matter. They suspected a deep design, and thought that the reason of England’s humanity was that her West Indian colonies were well stocked with negroes, whereas the islands she was restoring were empty of them. The plenipotentiaries of other powers possessing colonies in the tropics therefore refused to comply with Castlereagh’s request and it was eventually settled that the slave trade should be abolished by France after five, and by Spain after eight years. Castlereagh had to be content with this concession, but to satisfy his English constituents he got a declaration condemning the slave trade assented to by all the powers at the Congress. Another point of great importance which was settled at the Congress of Vienna was with regard to the navigation of rivers which flow through more than one state. It had been the custom for all the petty sovereigns to impose such heavy tolls on river traffic that such rivers as the Rhine were made practically useless for commerce. This question was discussed by a committee at the Congress, and a code for the international regulation of rivers was drawn up and generally agreed to.

[Sidenote: Close of the Congress of Vienna. June 1815.]

These matters took long to discuss, and might have taken longer had not the news arrived at the beginning of March 1815 that Napoleon had left Elba and become once more undisputed ruler of France. In the month of February the Duke of Wellington had succeeded Lord Castlereagh as English representative at Vienna, for the latter nobleman had to return to London to take his place in Parliament. At the news of the striking event of Napoleon’s being once more at the head of a French army all jealousies at Vienna ceased for the time. The Duke of Wellington was taken into consultation by the allied monarchs, and it was resolved to carry into effect the provisions of the Treaty of Chaumont. The great armies which had been prepared for a struggle amongst themselves were now turned by the allies against France. A treaty of alliance was signed at Vienna between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England, on the 25th of March 1815, by which those powers promised to furnish 180,000 men each for the prosecution of war, and stipulated that none of them should lay down arms until the power of Napoleon was completely destroyed. It was arranged that three armies should invade France, the first of 250,000 Austrians, Russians, and Bavarians under Schwartzenberg across the Upper Rhine, the second of 150,000 Prussians under Blücher across the Lower Rhine, and the third of 150,000 English, Hanoverians and Dutch from the Netherlands. Subsidies to the extent of £11,000,000 were promised by England to the allies. These arrangements made, the allied monarchs and their ministers left Vienna. But the final general Act of the Congress was not drawn up and signed until the 8th of June 1815, ten days before the battle of Waterloo.

[Sidenote: The First Reign of Louis XVIII.]

It has been said that the allied armies after the abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau had retired and left France to the rule of Louis XVIII. That King on returning to France had made most liberal promises in the declaration known as the Declaration of Saint Ouen. These principles were embodied in a Charter, which was granted on the 4th of June 1814. By this Charter representative institutions and entire individual liberty were promised, and also the maintenance of the administrative creations of the Empire. Under the new Constitution there were to be two chambers, the one of hereditary peers, the other of elected representatives. The promises of the Charter were very fair, and had they been duly carried out, France might have been entirely contented, but unfortunately for himself Louis XVIII. had not learned experience in his exile. In spite of the Charter he regarded himself as a ruler by right divine. _Emigrés_, even _émigrés_ who had borne arms against France and consistently abused their fatherland, were promoted to the highest offices in the State. The King surrounded himself with reactionary courtiers, and what was worse with reactionary ministers. The favour shown to returned _émigrés_, the haughty attitude of the Princes of the blood, and the violent proclamations of the returned bishops and clergy made the people of France fear that the promises made in the Charter were but a sham, and that the next step would be that the estates of the Church and of the Crown which had been sold during the Revolution would be resumed. The feeling of distrust was universal. The rule of Louis XVIII. had been accepted only as a guarantee of peace. It was never popular, and the former subordinates of Napoleon began to regret the Imperial _régime_. If this was the feeling among the civil population, it was still more keenly felt in the army. Prisoners of war, and the blockaded garrisons, who had returned to France, felt sure that Napoleon’s defeat in 1814 had been but accidental and wished to try conclusions once more with Europe. In all ranks a desire was expressed to wipe out the disgrace of the occupation of Paris by the allies.

[Sidenote: Napoleon’s return from Elba. March, 1815.]

On the 1st of March 1815, Napoleon, who had been informed of the universal feeling in France, landed in the Gulf of San Juan, and began the short reign which is known as the Hundred Days. He was accompanied by the 800 men of the Guard whom he had been allowed to have at Elba, and was received with the utmost enthusiasm by all classes. His journey through France was a triumphal procession. The King’s brother, the Comte d’Artois, vainly attempted to organise resistance at Lyons. Marshal Ney, who had promised to arrest his patron, joined him with the army under his command on the 17th of March, and on the 20th Napoleon re-entered Paris and took up his quarters at the Tuileries. Louis XVIII. had fled on the news of Ney’s defection, and escaping from France took shelter at Ghent. Napoleon had learnt bitter lessons from his misfortunes. He declared that he would grant full and complete individual liberty, and also the freedom of the press, and on the 23d of April he promulgated what he called the Additional Act consecrating these principles. He felt his error in depending too entirely upon his bureaucracy, and he appealed on the ground of patriotism to the men of the Revolution whom he had in the days of his power carefully kept from office. These men rallied round him, and he appointed their most noteworthy representative, Carnot, his Minister of the Interior. He declared his acceptance of the two chambers ordained by the Charter, and most of the peers created by Louis XVIII. took the oath of allegiance once again to Napoleon.

[Sidenote: Campaign of Waterloo. June 1815.]

After rousing national enthusiasm by appeals to patriotism and by the liberal provisions of the Additional Act, Napoleon organised his army, and in his favourite fashion decided to strike before any invasion of France took place. Of the three armies prepared for the invasion the one nearest within reach was that commanded by the Duke of Wellington. That General on leaving Vienna had been placed at the head of a miscellaneous force of English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Belgians. He greatly regretted the absence of most of his veterans of the Peninsula who were still in America, and complained of the number of raw troops under his command. He agreed to act in harmony with the Prussians under Blücher, who brought his army into the Netherlands. Napoleon determined to strike before Wellington and Blücher had united. He crossed the frontier at the head of 130,000 men, and by his skilful and rapid movements practically surprised the allied generals. On the 16th of June 1815, he defeated Blücher at Ligny, while Ney with his left fought a drawn battle with the English advanced divisions at Quatre Bras. By these engagements the English and Prussian armies were separated. Napoleon then resolved to attack the English with the bulk of his army, and detached Marshal Grouchy to pursue the Prussians. Blücher, however, promised to come to Wellington’s assistance if the English were attacked, and Wellington relying on this promise took up his position at Waterloo. On the 18th of June the battle of Waterloo was fought. The English army held its position in spite of repeated and furious attacks, until Blücher came up on the French right. Unable to continue the struggle against two foes, the French army was obliged to give way, and after the repulse of the Guard, which might have covered his retreat, Napoleon recognised that he was completely routed. He fled to Paris, and on the 22d of June he abdicated in favour of his son, the King of Rome. He nominated an executive commission of government, and then went on board ship in the hope of escaping to America. In this project he failed, and on 15th July he surrendered to Captain Maitland on board H.M.S. _Bellerophon_. The army of Wellington and Blücher pursued the defeated foe, but the rout had been too complete for the French to make another stand. Cambrai the only place that attempted to resist was easily taken, and on the 3d of July Wellington and Blücher reoccupied Paris. Meanwhile the grand army of Schwartzenberg had also invaded France, and the country was once more in the possession of the allies.

[Sidenote: Second Treaty of Paris. 20th Nov. 1815.]

The terms of the second Treaty of Paris proved that the allied monarchs understood the difference between the opposition made by France to Europe in 1814 and 1815. In 1814 the Treaty of Paris which was then concluded was, if not particularly liberal to France, at least perfectly just. The allied monarchs and their ministers had appreciated the fact that in 1814 they were fighting Napoleon and not France. The campaign of 1815 had been of a different character. The French nation and not merely the French army had given proof of their attachment both to the Empire and to Napoleon’s person. It was therefore considered necessary, not only to impose harsher terms upon France, but to exact securities for the future. Several schemes were proposed, of which one was to detach Alsace, Lorraine, and French Flanders, if not the whole of Picardy, and to reduce the limits of France to what they were before the conquests of Louis XIV. This scheme, which was earnestly supported by Prussia, who hoped to get the lion’s share of the districts taken from France, was warmly opposed by Austria and England. The latter power was not to be bribed by the proposed extension of the frontier of its new creation, the Kingdom of the Netherlands. And the former objected entirely to any increase of the power of Prussia. Lord Castlereagh in his opposition to these extravagant suggestions of Prussia was supported by the Emperor Alexander and his minister, Nesselrode, and eventually it was agreed that France should be reduced to its exact limits of 1789. This meant that France lost all the cessions made to it in 1814, except Avignon and the Venaissin. Chambéry and the part of Savoy then granted to France were restored to the King of Sardinia; the districts in the neighbourhood of Geneva were also returned to that canton, and the fortress of Huningen on the borders of Switzerland was ordered to be dismantled; and the various rectifications of the frontier on the eastern and north-eastern borders were no longer sanctioned. A war contribution of 700,000,000 francs was laid upon France, in addition to which she was to maintain, at the cost of 250,000,000 francs a year, an army of 150,000 men in the possession of her chief frontier fortresses for a period of five years.

[Sidenote: Napoleon sent to St. Helena.]

These were the most important conditions of peace contained in the second Treaty of Paris, which was signed on 20th of November 1815. But what France felt more bitterly than pecuniary contributions, or even the loss of territory, was the decision of the allied powers that the numerous pictures and works of art, which had been accumulated in Paris during the wars of the Revolution and the Empire, should be returned to their former owners. The Prussians were not satisfied with this, they wished to punish Paris more severely. Blücher was only prevented by the intervention of Lord Castlereagh and the Duke of Wellington from exacting a contribution of a 110,000,000 francs from the inhabitants of Paris alone. The Prussians even made preparations to blow up the Bridge of Jena, whose name perpetuated their greatest military humiliation, and were only prevented from their purpose by the expressed determination of Louis XVIII. to stand upon the bridge and be blown up with it if they persisted, and Blücher had to be satisfied with the alteration of the name of the bridge from the Bridge of Jena to the Bridge of the Military School. The question of the disposition of the person of Napoleon was one of some difficulty. He reached Torbay on board the _Bellerophon_ on the 24th of July 1815, and the English Ministers did not know what to do with their illustrious prisoner. They dared not trust him in any part of Europe or America from which he could repeat his expedition from Elba. Blücher loudly declared that he ought to be shot at Vincennes like the Duc d’Enghien, but the English Government thought it would be sufficient to confine him on an isolated island. For this purpose they borrowed the island of Saint Helena from the East India Company, and on the 8th of August, Napoleon set sail for his place of exile on board H.M.S. _Northumberland_.

[Sidenote: The Holy Alliance. Sept. 1815]

A month after the departure of Napoleon for St. Helena, the Emperor Alexander, the Emperor Francis, and King Frederick William signed the treaty which is known as the Holy Alliance. By this treaty it was declared that the Christian religion was the sole base of government, and the contracting monarchs promised to aid each other on all occasions like brothers, and to recommend to their peoples the exercise of the duties of the Christian religion. Lord Castlereagh declined on behalf of the Prince Regent to join the Holy Alliance, but on the 28th of November 1815, after the signature of the Peace of Paris, he agreed to an alliance that should include all the four powers, of which the aims were to keep from the throne of France either Napoleon or any relation of his, to combine together for the security of their separate states, and the general tranquillity of Europe, and to hold at fixed dates congresses for the settlement of disputed questions.

[Sidenote: The Second Restoration of Louis XVIII. July 1815.]

The second restoration of Louis XVIII. differed from the first as the second Treaty of Paris differed from its predecessor. After the events of the Hundred Days, the Bourbon King could no more delude himself with the idea that he was welcome to the people of France. He owed his seat upon the throne only to the absence of Napoleon and the presence of the allied armies in France, and he prepared on this occasion to punish those who had deserted him. He refused to grant an amnesty, and on the 24th of July 1815, he proscribed fifty-seven of the leading men in France, of whom nineteen were ordered to be tried by court-martial, and thirty-eight were banished. The most illustrious of the victims who perished under this proscription was Marshal Ney, who was shot at Paris on the 7th of December, after being condemned to death by the Chamber of Peers. This procedure was rendered necessary because it would have been difficult to find a court-martial to condemn the bravest of the French marshals. Marshal Moncey, who was nominated to preside over such a court-martial, refused in an eloquent letter which caused him to be sent to prison for three months. Far worse than these executions was the result of the outbreak of brigandage in the south of France. Under the pretext of being Royalists, the Companies of Jehu, which had ravaged the south of France in the days of the Thermidorians and of the Directory, again set to work. Political, religious, and personal passions excited to massacre. Pillage and murder were rife throughout the south of France, and among the victims who were slain in this White Terror of 1815 were Marshal Brune, and Generals Ramel and Lagarde. Special courts were formed by a law voted on the 12th of December 1815, to punish political offences. These provost’s courts were as severe and almost as unjust as the revolutionary tribunals in the provinces during the Reign of Terror, and many hundreds of executions took place. Finally, in January 1816, what was ironically called a Law of Amnesty was passed. This law, from the list of its exceptions, was practically a gigantic proscription. Among others, all surviving members of the Convention who had voted for the death of Louis XVI. were exiled if they had in any way accepted the authority of Napoleon during the Hundred Days, which most of them had done. Under this Law of Amnesty most of the great statesmen who had been concerned in the government of France since 1793 were driven into exile. Conspicuous among them were Carnot, Merlin of Douai, Sieyès, Cambacérès, and David, the greatest painter of his time.

[Sidenote: Government of the Second Restoration.]

Restored for a second time to the throne of France, Louis XVIII. declined to take warning from the result of his former policy. He again showered his favours on returned _émigrés_, and pursued a thoroughly reactionary policy. As soon as he was firmly seated at the Tuileries, with the Prussians and the English encamped round Paris, he dismissed Talleyrand and Fouché from office and formed a new and strongly Royalist ministry under the presidency of the Duc de Richelieu, who had spent the last twenty years of his life in exile as one of the chief administrators of Russia. The king avowed his intention of keeping the promises he made in the Charter of 1814, but those promises were carried out in such a way as to make them absolutely illusory. He took advantage of the general adhesion given to Napoleon on his return from Elba to exclude from the Upper Chamber or House of Peers most of the leading men in France, leaving the majority entirely in the hands of former _émigrés_, and of men who by the excess of their royalism wished to palliate their offence in not having emigrated. The Lower House, or Chamber of Representatives, even exceeded the House of Peers in its violent royalism. The deputies, chiefly elected under the direct pressure of threats of vengeance, were ready to adopt any reactionary measure suggested to them. Louis XVIII. gave this Assembly the name of the ‘Chambre Introuvable,’ which he intended as a compliment, but which has survived as a term of derision. Among the first laws voted were the suspension of individual liberty, and of the liberty of the press, and the request was then made that the King, in his goodness, would revise fourteen articles of the Charter which were too liberal. But even this chamber, aided by the presence of foreign armies, could not make France revert to the condition in which it had been before 1789. A hint of the resumption of ecclesiastical or national domains would have set the whole country in an uproar, and the Chamber had to be satisfied with voting a large sum of money out of the ordinary taxes as compensation to the _émigrés_ for their sufferings in exile.

[Sidenote: The Reaction in Spain.]

[Sidenote: Naples.]

The spirit of reaction went much further in Spain than in France. Ferdinand VII., on returning to his capital in May 1814, issued a proclamation attacking the Cortes, which had done so much to recover the country from the hands of the French. In his own words: ‘A Cortes convoked in a manner never before known in Spain has been profiting by my captivity in France, and has usurped my rights by imposing on my people an anarchical and seditious Constitution based on the democratic principles of the French Revolution.’ The King of Spain then proceeded to annul by his own absolute authority everything that had been done during his absence. He re-established the Inquisition, and proscribed and condemned to death all who had taken part in reforming the institutions of Spain, whether under the authority of Joseph Bonaparte or under that of the National Cortes. Many hundreds, if not thousands, of Spanish patriots were put to death in a vain attempt of Ferdinand VII. to restore things as they had been in former days. The attempt to carry out a complete reaction resulted in utter failure. Insurrections broke out in all directions, and the Spanish colonies in South America took advantage of the troubles in the fatherland to strike a blow for their own freedom. It is satisfactory to be able to state that the head of the third reigning branch of the House of Bourbon behaved with more moderation and wisdom than Ferdinand VII. of Spain or Louis XVIII. of France. Ferdinand IV., King of the Two Sicilies, returned to his capital at Naples in June 1815. He can hardly be blamed for ordering the execution of Murat whom he had always regarded as a usurper, and it is greatly to his credit that he made some endeavour to retain the excellent administration on the French system which had been established by Joseph Bonaparte and Murat.

[Sidenote: Results of the Congress of Vienna.]

The final overthrow of Napoleon and his exile to St. Helena allowed the new system for the government of Europe as laid down by the Congress of Vienna to be tried. That system may be roughly designated as the system of the Great Powers. Before 1789, certain states, such as France and England and Spain, were, from fortuitous circumstances, or the course of their history, larger, more united, and therefore more fitted for war, than others, but the greater part of the Continent was split up into small, and in the case of Germany, into very small states. Several of these small states, such as Sweden and Holland, had at different times exercised a very considerable influence, and the policy of Frederick the Great had added another to them, in the military state of Prussia. At the Congress of Vienna the tendency was to diminish the number and power of the secondary states, and to destroy minute sovereignties. Sweden and Denmark were relegated to the rank of third-rate powers; the petty principalities of Germany were built up into third-rate states. Austria and Prussia were established as great powers, but the increase of their territory brought with it dissimilar results. Prussia became the preponderant state of Germany, while Austria, whose Imperial House had so long held the position of Holy Roman Emperor, became less German, and now depended for its strength on its Italian, Magyar, and Slavonic provinces. The irruption of Russia into the European comity of nations was another significant feature. By its annexation of the greater part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, Russia thrust itself between Prussia and Austria territorially, while its leading share in the overthrow of Napoleon made its place as a European power unassailable. It may be doubted if the policy of Peter the Great and the Empress Catherine was thus carried out. The tendency of those rulers was to make the Baltic and the Black Sea Russian lakes, and to build up an Empire of the East; affairs in Central Europe only interested them in so far as they prevented interference with their Eastern designs, and did not lead to the erection of powerful states on the Russian border.

[Sidenote: The Principle of Nationality.]

Nothing is more remarkable in the settlement of Europe by the Congress of Vienna than the entire neglect of the principle of nationality. Yet it was the sentiment of national patriotism which had enabled France to repulse Europe in arms, and had trained the soldiers with whom Napoleon had given the law to the Continent and had overthrown the mercenary armies of his opponents. It was the principle of nationality which had crippled Napoleon’s finest armies in Spain, and which had produced his expulsion from Russia. It was the feeling of intense national patriotism which had made the Prussian army of 1813, and enabled Prussia after its deepest humiliation to take rank as a first-class power. But the diplomatists at Vienna treated the idea as without force. They had not learnt the great lesson of the French Revolution, that the first result of rousing a national consciousness of political liberty is to create a spirit of national patriotism. The Congress of Vienna trampled such notions under foot. The partition of Poland was consecrated by Europe; Italy was placed under foreign rulers; Belgium and Holland, in spite of the hereditary opposition of centuries, were united under one king. The territories on the left bank of the Rhine, which were happy under French rule, and had been an integral part of France for twenty years, were roughly torn away, and divided between Prussia, Bavaria, and the House of Orange, under the fancied necessity, induced by the exploded notion of maintaining the balance of power in Europe, of building up a bulwark against France. Such short-sighted policy was certain to be undone. Holland and Belgium separated; Italy became united; Poland maintained the consciousness of her national unity, and has more than once endeavoured to regain her independence; France has never ceased to yearn after her ‘natural’ frontier, the Rhine; the states of Germany have developed a national German patriotism which has led to the creation of the modern German Empire. This feeling of conscious nationality was the result of the French Revolution and the wars of Napoleon; its existence is the strength of England, France, Russia, and Germany, its absence is the weakness of Austria. In so far as the spirit of nationality was neglected at the Congress of Vienna, its work was but temporary; in its resurrection, which has filled the history of the present century, the work of the French Revolution has been permanent.

[Sidenote: Permanent results of the French Revolution.]

But after all, the growth of the spirit of nationality is only a secondary result of the French Revolution upon Europe; it did not arise in France until foreign powers attempted to interfere with the development of the French people after their own fashion; it did not arise in Europe until Napoleon began to interfere with the development of other nations. The primary results of the French Revolution,—the recognition of individual liberty, which implied the abolition of serfdom and of social privileges; the establishment of political liberty, which implied the abolition of despots, however benevolent, and of political privileges; the maintenance of the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people, which implied the right of the people, through their representatives, to govern themselves,—have also survived the Congress of Vienna. When Europe tried to interfere, the French people sacrificed these great gains to the spirit of nationality, and bowed before the despotism of the Committee of Public Safety and of Napoleon; they have since regained them. The French taught these principles to the rest of Europe, and the history of Europe since 1815 has been the history of their growth side by side with the idea of nationality. How the two, liberty and nationality, can be preserved in harmony is the great problem of the future; the history of Europe from 1789 to 1815 affords many examples of the difficulty of the problem and of the dangers which beset its solution.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I.

THE RULERS AND MINISTERS OF THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE, 1789–1815.

(_Capitals indicate Rulers; small capitals, Chief Ministers; and italics, Foreign Ministers._

+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+-----+ | | | | | | Prussia. | Russia. | Spain. | | +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+-----+ |FREDERICK WILLIAM II.|CATHERINE II. (since |CHARLES IV. (since |1789.| | (since 1786). | 1762). | Dec. 1788). | | | _Hertzberg_ | _Ostermann_ |FLORIDA BLANCA | | | (since 1756). | (since 1775). | (since 1773). | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |1790.| | _Schulemburg_ (May).| | |1791.| | | | | | |HAUGWITZ (Oct.) | |ARANDA (July). |1792.| | | |GODOY (Nov.) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |1793.| | | | |1794.| | | | | | | | | |1795.| | | | | | | |PAUL I. (Nov.) | |1796.| | | OSTERMANN. | | | | | _Panine._ | | | |FREDERICK WILLIAM | | |1797.| | III. (Nov.) | | | | | | | _Saavedra_ (March). |1798.| | | | _Urquijo_ (August). | | | | | |1799.| | | | | | | | | | | | | |GODOY (Dec.) |1800.| | |ALEXANDER I. (Mar.) | |1801.| | | PANINE. | | | | | _Kotchoubey._ | | | | | | | | | | VORONZOV. | |1802.| | | | |1803.| |HARDENBERG (Aug.) | _Adam Czartoryski_ | |1804.| | | (May). | | | | | | |1805.| |HAUGWITZ (Feb.) | _Baron Budberg_ | |1806.| |HARDENBERG (Nov.) | (Aug.) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |STEIN (July). | _Roumianzov_ (Sept.)| |1807.| | _Goltz_ (July). | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |JOSEPH BONAPARTE. |1808.| | | | AZANZA. | | | | | |1809.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |HARDENBERG (July). |ROUMIANZOV. | |1810.| | | _Nesselrode._ | | | | | | |1811.| | | | |1812.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |1813.| | | |FERDINAND VII. |1814.| | | | | | +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+-----+

APPENDIX II.

THE RULERS OF THE SECOND-RATE POWERS OF EUROPE, 1789–1815.

+----+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+ | | Sweden. | Denmark. | Turkey. | Portugal. | | | | | | | +----+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+ |1789|Gustavus III. |Christian VII. |Abdul Hamid. |Maria I. | | | (Since 1771.) | (Since 1766.) | (Since 1774.) |(Since 1777.) | | | | |Selim III. | | | | | | (April.) | | |1790| | | | | | | | | | | |1791| | | | | | |Gustavus IV. | | | | |1792| (March.) | | | | | | | | | | |1793| | | | | | | | | | | |1794| | | | | | | | | | | |1795| | | | | | | | | | | |1796| | | | | | | | | | | |1797| | | | | | | | | | | |1798| | | | | | | | | | | |1799| | | |_Prince John, | | | | | | Regent._ | |1800| | | | | | | | | | | |1801| | | | | | | | | | | |1802| | | | | | | | | | | |1803| | | | | | | | | | | |1804| | | | | | | | | | | |1805| | | | | | | | | | | |1806| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |1807| | |Mustapha IV. | | | | | | (May.) | | |1808| |Frederick VI. |Mahmoud II. | | | | | (March.) | (July.) | | |1809|Charles XIII. | | | | | | (May.) | | | | |1810|_Bernadotte, | | | | | | Prince Royal | | | | | | (Aug.)_ | | | | |1811| | | | | | | | | | | |1812| | | | | | | | | | | |1813| | | | | | | | | | | |1814| | | | | | | | | | | |1815| | | | | +----+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+

+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----+ | Sardinia. | The Two | Bavaria. | Würtemburg. | | | | Sicilies. | | | | +----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----+ |Victor Amadeus |Ferdinand IV. |Charles |Charles Eugène. |1789| | III. (Since | (Since 1759.) |Theodore. (Since| (Since 1735.) | | | 1773.) | | 1777.) | | | | | | | | | | | | | |1790| | | | | | | | | | | |1791| | | | | | | | | | | |1792| | | | | | | | | | | |1793| | | | | | | | | | | |1794| | | | | | | | | | |Frederick |1795| | | | | Eugène. (Oct.) | | |Charles Emmanuel| | | |1796| | IV. (Oct.) | | | | | | | | |Frederick I. |1797| | | | | (Dec.) | | | | | | |1798| | | | | | | | | |Maximilian | |1799| | | | Joseph. | | | | | | | |1800| | | | | | | | | | | |1801| | | | | | | |Victor Emmanuel | | | |1802| | I. (June.) | | | | | | | | | |1803| | |----------------| | | | | | Naples. | | |1804| | |----------------| | | | | | | | |1805| | | | | | | | |Joseph | | |1806| | | Bonaparte | | | | | | (March.) | | | | | | | | |1807| | | | | | | | |Joachim Murat. | | |1808| | | (August.) | | | | | | | | |1809| | | | | | | | | | | |1810| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |1811| | | | | | | | | | | |1812| | | | | | | | | | | |1813| | | | | | | | |Ferdinand IV | | |1814| | | | | | | | | | | |1815| +----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----+

APPENDIX III.

THE FAMILY OF NAPOLEON.

Letizia Ramolino, b. 1750, d. 1839. ----+-------------+------------+-----------+------------+------------+ | | | | | | LUCIEN, LOUIS, JÉROME, ÉLISA, PAULINE, CAROLINE, b. 1775, b. 1778, b. 1784, b. 1777, b. 1780, b. 1782, d. 1840, d. 1846, d. 1860, d. 1820, d. 1825, d. 1839, Prince of King of King of Grand Duchess of =(1800), Canino, Holland Westphalia Duchess of Guastalla Joachim =(1794), (1806–1810) (1807–1814) Tuscany (1808–1814), Murat, Christine =(1802), =(1803) (1808–1814), =(1801), King of Boyer, Hortense Eliza =(1797), Charles Naples =(1802), de Beau- Patterson Felix Leclerc, (1808–1814), Alexandrine harnais. =(1807) Baciocchi, =(1803), | de Bleschamp, | Catherine | Camillo, | | | of Würtem- | Prince and had | | burg. and had Borghese. issue. and had | | issue. | issue. | | | | | Napoleon, | | b. 1801, | | d. 1804. | | | +------+--------+---------+ | | | | | Jérome Napoleon Mathilde, | Napoleon, Joseph, b. 1820, | b. 1814, _Prince =Prince | d. 1847. Napoleon_ Demidov. | b. 1822, | d. 1890, | =(1859), | Clothilde | of Savoy. | | | +---------+---------+ ----------+-------+ | | | | | | | NAPOLEON III.,==(1853) Eugénie Victor Louis Lætitia, b. 1808, d. 1873. | de Montijo. Napoleon, Napoleon, b. 1866, Emperor of the | b. 1862. b. 1864. =Duke of French (1851–1870).| Aosta. | Napoleon Eugène, Prince Imperial, (1856–1879).

APPENDIX IV.

NAPOLEON’S MARSHALS.

+-------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------ | | | General | General | | Names. | Born. | of | of | MARSHAL. | | | Brigade. | Division. | +-------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------ |BERTHIER, |20 Nov. 1753 |22 May 1792 |13 June 1795 |19 May 1804 | Louis Alexandre. | | (Maréchal | | | | | de Camp) | | | | | | | |MURAT, Joachim. |25 March 1767|10 May 1796 |25 July 1799 | „ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |MONCEY, Bon |31 July 1754 |18 Feb. 1794 | 9 June 1794 | „ | Adrien Jeannot. | | | | | | | | | |JOURDAN, Jean |29 April 1762|27 May 1793 |30 July 1793 | „ |Baptiste. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |MASSÉNA, André. | 6 May 1756 |22 Aug. 1793 |20 Dec. 1793 | „ | | | | | | | | | | |AUGEREAU, Charles |21 Oct. 1757 | .. |25 Dec. 1793 | „ | Pierre François. | | | | | | | | | |BERNADOTTE, Jean |26 Jan. 1763 |26 June 1794 |22 Oct. 1794 | „ | Baptiste Jules. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |SOULT, Jean de |29 March 1769|11 Oct. 1794 |21 April 1799| „ | Dieu Nicolas. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |BRUNE, Guillaume |13 May 1763 | .. |17 Aug. 1797 | „ | Marie Anne. | | | | | | | | | |LANNES, Jean. |11 April 1769|17 March 1797|10 May 1799 | „ | | | | | | | | | | |MORTIER, Adolphe |13 Feb. 1768 |23 Feb. 1799 |25 Sept. 1799| „ | Édouard Casimir | | | | | Joseph. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |NEY, Michel. |10 Jan. 1769 | 1 Aug. 1796 |28 March 1799| „ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |DAVOUT, Louis |10 May 1770 |24 Sept. 1794| 3 July 1800 | „ | Nicolas. | | | | | | | | | |BESSIÈRES, Jean | 6 Aug. 1768 |18 July 1800 |13 Sept. 1802| „ | Baptiste. | | | | | | | | | |KELLERMANN, |28 May 1735 |9 March 1788 |19 March 1792| „ | François | | (Maréchal | (Lieut.- | | Christophe. | | de Camp) | General) | | | | | | |LEFEBVRE, François |15 Oct. 1755 | 2 Dec. 1793 |10 Jan. 1794 | „ | Joseph. | | | | | | | | | |PÉRIGNON, Dominique|31 May 1754 | .. |25 Dec. 1793 | „ | Catherine de. | | | | | | | | | |SÉRURIER, Jean | 8 Dec. 1742 |22 Aug. 1793 |13 June 1795 | „ | Mathieu | | | | | Philibert. | | | | | | | | | |VICTOR, Victor | 7 Dec. 1764 |20 Dec. 1793 |10 March 1797|13 July 1807 | Claude Perrin, | | | | | _called_. | | | | | | | | | |MACDONALD, Jacques |17 Nov. 1765 |26 Aug. 1793 |28 Nov. 1794 |12 July 1809 | Étienne Joseph | | | | | Alexandre. | | | | | | | | | |OUDINOT, Nicolas |25 April 1767|14 |June 1794|12 April 1799| „ | Charles. | | | | | | | | | |MARMONT, Auguste |20 July 1774 |10 June 1798 | 9 Sept. 1800| „ | Frédéric Louis | | | | | Viesse de. | | | | | | | | | |SUCHET, Louis |2 March 1770 |23 March 1798|10 July 1799 | 8 July 1811 | Gabriel. | | | | | | | | | |GOUVION-SAINT-CYR, |13 April 1764|10 June 1794 | 2 Sept. 1794|27 Aug. 1812 | Laurent. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |PONIATOWSKI, | 7 May 1762 | .. | .. | Oct. 1813 | Joseph, Prince. | | | | | | | | | |GROUCHY, |23 Oct. 1766 |7 Sept. 1792 |13 June 1795 |17 Apr. 1815 | Emmanuel de. | | | | +-------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------

APPENDIX V.

NAPOLEON’S MINISTERS DURING THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE 1799–1814.

+-----+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------- | | Foreign Affairs. | Interior. | Finances. | War. +-----+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------- |1799.|9 Nov. Charles |12 Nov. Pierre Simon|10 Nov. Martin |10 Nov. Louis | |Maurice de | LAPLACE. | Michel | Alexandre BERTHIER. | |TALLEYRAND-PÉRIGORD.| (Count 24 April | Charles GAUDIN. | | |(Prince of Benevento| 1808.) | (Count 26 April | | | 5 June 1806.) | | 1808; Duke of Gaeta| | | | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | | | | | „ | „ |25 Dec. Lucien | „ | „ | | | BONAPARTE. | | | | | | | |1800.| „ | „ | „ |12 April. Lazare | | | | | Nicolas | | | | | Marguerite CARNOT. | | | | | | „ | „ |6 Nov. Jean Antoine | „ |8 Oct. Louis | | | CHAPTAL. | | Alexandre BERTHIER. | | | (Count 26 April | | (Prince of | | | 1808; | | Neufchâtel | | | Count of Chanteloup| | 13 March 1806; | | | 25 March 1810.) | | Prince of Wagram | | | | | 31 Dec. 1809.) | | | | | |1801.| „ | „ | „ | „ | | | | | |1802.| „ | „ | „ | „ | | | | | |1803.| „ | „ | „ | „ | | | | | |1804.| „ |1 Aug. Jean Baptiste| „ | „ | | | Nompère de | | | | | CHAMPAGNY. | | | | | | | |1805.| „ | „ | „ | „ | | | | | |1806.| „ | „ | „ | „ | | | | | |1807.|8 Aug. Jean Baptiste|9 Aug. Emmanuel | „ |9 Aug. Henrí Jacques | | Nompère de | CRETET. (Count of | | Guillaume CLARKE. | |CHAMPAGNY. (Count 24| Champmol 26 | | (Count of Hunebourg | | April 1808; | April 1808.) | | 24 April 1808; Duke | | Duke of Cadore | | | of Feltre 15 Aug. | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | 1809.) | | | | | |1808.| „ | „ | „ | „ | | | | | |1809.| „ |1 Oct. Jean Pierre | „ | „ | | | Bachasson de | | | | | MONTALIVET. | | | | | (Comte 27 Nov. | | | | | 1808.) | | | | | | | |1810.| „ | „ | „ | „ | | | | | |1811.|17 April. Hugues | „ | „ | „ | | Bernard MARET. | | | | | (Count 3 May 1809; | | | | | Duke of Bassano | | | | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | | | | | | |1812.| „ | „ | „ | „ | | | | | |1813.|20 Nov. Armand | „ | „ | „ | | Augustin Louis | | | | | CAULAINCOURT. (Duke| | | | | of Vicenza 7 June | | | | | 1808.) | | | | | | | | |1814.| „ | „ | „ | „ +-----+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-----+ | Marine. | Justice. | Police. | Public Worship. | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-----| | 24 Nov. Pierre |19 July. Jean | 20 July. Joseph | |1799.| | Alexandre | Jacques Régis | FOUCHÉ. | | | | Laurent FORFAIT. | CAMBACÉRES. (Duke | | | | | | of Parma 24 April | | | | | | 1808.) | | | | | | | | | | | „ |25 Dec. André Joseph| | | „ | | | ABRIAL. | | | | | | (Count 26 April | | | | | | 1808.) | | | | | „ | | | |1800.| | | | | | | | „ | | | | „ | | | | | | | |1 Oct. Denis DECRÈS.| | | |1801.| | (Count June 1808; | | | | | |Duke 28 April 1813.)| | | | | | | | | | | | „ |15 Sept. Claude |15 Sept. (_Ministry | |1802.| | | Ambroise REGNIER. | abolished._) | | | | | (Count 24 April | | | | | |1808; Duke of Massa | | | | | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | | | | | | | | | „ | „ | | |1803.| | | | | | | | „ | „ |10 July. Joseph | July. Jean Étienne |1804.| | | | FOUCHÉ. (Count 24 | Marie PORTALIS. | | | | | April 1808; | | | | | | Duke of Otranto | | | | | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | | | | | | | | „ | „ | „ | „ |1805.| | | | | | | | „ | „ | „ | „ |1806.| | | | | | | | „ | „ | „ | Aug. Félix Julíen |1807.| | | | | Jean BIGOT DE | | | | | | PRÉAMENEU. | | | | | | (Count 24 April | | | | | | 1808.) | | | | | | | | | „ | „ | „ | „ |1808.| | | | | | | | „ | „ | „ | „ |1809.| | | | | | | | „ | „ | June 8. Anne Jean | „ |1810.| | | | Marie René SAVARY.| | | | | | (Duke of Rovigo | | | | | | 1808.) | | | | | | | | | | „ | „ | „ | „ |1811.| | | | | | | | „ | „ | „ | „ |1812.| | | | | | | | „ | „ | „ | „ |1813.| | | | | | | | „ | „ | | |1814.| +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-----+

APPENDIX VI.

CONCORDANCE OF THE REPUBLICAN AND GREGORIAN CALENDARS

(Extracted from Stephens’ _History of the French Revolution_, vol. ii. (Longmans and Co.))

NOTE.--Each month in the Republican Calendar consisted of _thirty_ days.

MAPS.

Map 1. Europe in 1789. „ 2. Europe in 1803. „ 3. Europe in 1810. „ 4. Europe in 1815.

These maps are intended to show the limits of the principal states of Europe at the beginning of 1789, after the rearrangement in 1803, at the height of Napoleon’s power in 1810, and according to the settlement made by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

The same colouring has been preserved through the series of maps in order that the boundaries of each country may be compared at these different dates.

The red line in Map 1 marks the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire.

The area in Germany left uncoloured—in all four maps—was occupied by various states too small in size to be indicated by colours.

INDEX

The dates given in brackets are those of the birth and death of the person indexed; where only the date of death is known it is preceded by a ♰.

Full names and titles are given.

Proper names commencing with ‘da,’ ‘de,’ ‘d’,’ are indexed under the succeeding initial letter.

Abdul Hamid (1725–89), Sultan of Turkey, 44.

Abensberg, battle of (20 April 1809), 272.

Abercromby, Sir Ralph, English general (1735–1801), 224.

Aberdeen, George Gordon, Earl of, English diplomatist (1784–1860), 301, 311, 316, 323.

Abo, treaty of (April 1812), 302.

Aboukir Bay, French fleet defeated in, by Nelson (1 August 1798), 195.

Abrantes, Duke of. _See_ Junot.

Abrial, André Joseph, Comte, French statesman (1750–1828), 216.

Acre, siege of (1799), 208.

Acton, Joseph, Neapolitan statesman (1737–1808), 23.

Adda, the, Bonaparte forces the passage of, at Lodi (1796), 174; Suvórov, at Cassano (1799), 203.

Addington, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, English statesman (1757–1844), 225.

Additional Act, the, declared by Napoleon (23 April 1815), 352.

Adige, the, Italy up to, ceded to Austria by treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; by treaty of Lunéville (1801), 220; Austrian positions on, turned by Macdonald (1800), 219.

Adlersparre, George, Baron, Swedish general (1760–1837), 279.

Aix-la-Chapelle, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35, 150, 230, 344.

Albuera, battle of (16 May 1811), 297.

Albufera, battle of (26 Dec. 1811), 297.

—— Duke of. _See_ Suchet.

Aldenhoven, battle of (2 Oct. 1794), 150.

Alessandria, fortress built at, by Victor Amadeus III., 27, 203, 204, 218.

Alexander I., Emperor of Russia (1777–1825), attitude at his accession, 234; joins coalition against France, 242, 243; defeated at Austerlitz, 244; at Eylau and Friedland, 248, 249; interview with Napoleon at Tilsit, 249, 250; makes treaty of Tilsit, 250; conquers Finland, 254, 278; acquisitions in Poland, and dislike of Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 261; interview with Napoleon at Erfurt, 262; conduct in 1809, 274; war with Turkey, 281; makes treaty of Bucharest, 281; refuses a sister to Napoleon, 294; causes of dissension with Napoleon, 299–301; makes treaty of Abo with Bernadotte, 302; summons Stein to his Court, 304; his policy of retreat before Napoleon (1812), 305; fights battle of Borodino, 305; negotiates with Napoleon, 306; forms friendship with Frederick William III. of Prussia, 308; distrust of Napoleon, 310; agrees to Proposals of Frankfort, 316; desires to invade France, 317; refuses to retreat, 319, 320; enters Paris, 329; influenced by Talleyrand, 329, 330; speech to the French Senate, 330, 331; greatness of his share in overthrowing Napoleon, 334; at the Congress of Vienna, 337; his desire for the whole of Poland, 339; forced to give way, 340, 341; gave constitution to Poland, 342; protected Murat and Eugène de Beauharnais, 345; signs treaty against Napoleon (1815), 350; opposes partition of France, 354; joins the Holy Alliance, 355.

Alexandria, 195, 224.

Alicante, Bentinck repulsed at (1812), 307.

Alkmaar, Convention of (18 Oct. 1799), 205.

Almeida, siege of (1811), 296.

Alps, French reach the summit of Mont Cenis (1795), 151; Suvórov crosses (1799), 204, 205; Bonaparte (1800), 218; Macdonald (1800), 219.

Alsace, rights of the Princes of the Empire in, 79; proposals of Mirabeau and Merlin, 80; letter of Leopold on, 89, 90; _conclusion_ of the Diet of the Empire on, 108; invaded by Würmser, 130, 139; recovered by the French (1794), 140; proposal to detach from France (1815), 354.

Altdorf, Suvórov reaches (1799), 204.

Altenkirchen, battle of (20 Sept. 1796), 178.

Alton, Richard, Count d’, Austrian general (1732–90), 43, 47, 48, 63, 64.

Alvensleben, Philip Charles, Count von, Prussian statesman (1745–1802), 153, 170, 179.

Alvinzi (Alvinczy), Joseph, Austrian general (1735–1810), 176.

America, South, 264, 358.

—— United States of. _See_ United States.

_Ami du Peuple,_ Marat’s journal, 61.

Amiens, treaty of (1802), 225.

Amnesty, general, decreed by the Convention (1795), 166.

—— law of, promulgated (1815), 357.

Amsterdam, 32, 149, 255.

Ancients, Council of. _See_ Council.

Ancona, 175, 207, 277.

Angoulême, Maria Thérèse Charlotte, Duchess of, daughter of Louis XVI. (1778–1851), 168.

—— Louis Antoine, Duke of, son of the Comte d’Artois (1775–1844), 326, 327.

Anhalt, the Dukes of, Princes of the Empire (1789), 34, 343.

Anhalt-Köthen, Louis, Duke of (1761–1819), 293.

Anhalt-Zerbst, the Empress Catherine, a princess of, 18.

Ankarström, John James, Swedish officer (1761–1792), 110.

Anselme, Jacques Bernard Modeste d’, French general (1740–1812), 117.

Anspach, Napoleon violates Prussian neutrality by marching through (1805), 244.

Antwerp, riot against the Austrians suppressed at (1788), 47; abandoned to the Belgian patriots (1789), 64; Napoleon’s buildings at, 276; Carnot’s defence of (1814), 321; its retention cause of Napoleon’s fall, 324.

Aoust, Eustache, Comte d’, French general (1764–94), 140.

Appenzell, democratic canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228.

Aranda, Don Pedro Pablo Abaracay Bolea, Count of, Spanish statesman (1718–99), 4, 21, 126.

Archbishop-Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, 34, 39, 40.

Arcis-sur-Aube battle of (20 March 1814), 328.

Arcola, battle of (16 Nov. 1796), 176.

Aremberg, Louis Engelbert, Duke of (1750–1820), 93.

—— Prosper Louis, Duke of (1785–1863), 282.

Argau, canton of Switzerland, formed by Bonaparte (1803), 228; recognised by Congress of Vienna (1815), 344.

Aristocracy, Napoleon’s, 286.

Armistices: Cherasco (1796), 174; Foligno (1796), 175; Giurgevo (1790), 88; Pleswitz (1813), 309.

Arndt, Ernest Maurice, German poet (1769–1862), 291.

Arragon, Suchet’s campaigns in, 275, 295.

Arras, atrocities of Le Bon at (1794), 139.

Artois, Charles Philippe, Comte d’, younger brother of Louis XVI., afterwards King Charles X. of France (1757–1836), 55, 59, 102, 139, 167, 172, 351.

Aschaffenburg, principality of, granted to the Elector of Mayence, 225, 260.

Aspern or Essling, battle of (21, 22 May 1809), 273.

Assignats issued in France, 74; their effect, 98.

Aubert-Dubayet, Jean Baptiste Annibal, French general (1759–1797), 166, 182.

Auckland, William Eden, Lord, English diplomatist (1744–1814), 65, 93.

Auerstädt, battle of (14 Oct. 1806), 247.

—— Duke of. _See_ Davout.

Augereau, Charles Pierre François, Duke of Castiglione, French general (1757–1816), 191, 219, 321; App. iv.

Augsburg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34.

—— bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227.

—— city of, a free city of the Empire (1789), 35; taken by Moreau (1800), 219; maintained as a free city (1803), 226; Masséna’s headquarters (1809), 272.

Augusta, Princess, of Bavaria married to Eugène de Beauharnais, 258.

Augustus, Prince, of Prussia (1779–1843), 337.

Aulic Council, the, 35.

Austerlitz, battle of (2 Dec. 1805), 244.

Austria, position in 1789, 14–17; influence in the Empire, 35; obtained cessions by the treaty of Sistova (1791), 88; got nothing in the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; received Cracow, etc. at third partition of Poland (1795), 152; received Venice for Lombardy by treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; and by treaty of Lunéville (1801), 220; obtained Trent and Brixen, but lost much influence in the resettlement of Germany (1803), 226; formed into an empire (1805), 236; lost Venice, Istria, the Tyrol, etc. by treaty of Pressburg (1805), 245; lost Trieste, Galicia, Salzburg, etc. by treaty of Vienna (1809), 274; at Congress of Vienna (1814) got back Cracow, 342, and Lombardy and Venetia, 347. _See_ Francis II., Joseph II., Leopold II.

Austrian Netherlands. _See_ Belgium.

Auvergne, movement against the Convention in (1793), 131.

Avignon, city of, wishes to join France (1790), 76; secured to France by first treaty of Paris (1814), 333; and by second treaty of Paris (1815), 354.

Babeuf, François Noël (Gracchus), French socialist (1764–97), 181.

Badajoz, treaty of (1801), 223; taken by Soult (1810), 296; by Wellington (1812), 306.

Baden, condition in 1789, 37; made an electorate (1803), 225; increased by the secularisations (1803), 227; made a grand duchy (1806), 245; received Ortenau and the Breisgau (1809), 258; a state of the Confederation of the Rhine (1808), 260; of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. _See_ Charles Frederick, Charles Louis Frederick.

Bagration, Peter, Prince, Russian general (1762–1812), 281, 305.

Bailly, Jean Sylvain, French statesman (1736–93), 53, 59, 138.

Baird, Sir David, English general (1757–1829), 224.

Ball, Sir Alexander John, English admiral (1759–1809), 195.

Baltic Sea, effort to exclude English commerce from, 222; command of, given to Russia and Prussia by the Congress of Vienna, 347.

Bamberg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34.

—— bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227.

Bank of France, founded by Bonaparte, 215.

Bantry Bay, French expedition to (1796), 185.

Barbé-Marbois, François, Comte de, French statesman (1745–1837), 188, 191, 214.

Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince, Russian general (1755–1818), 305, 309, 313.

Barentin, Charles Louis François de Paule de, French minister (1738–1819), 51.

Barère, Bertrand, French orator (1755–1841), 117, 133, 134, 145, 149, 155.

Barnave, Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie, French politician (1761–93), 100.

Barras, Paul François Jean Nicolas, Comte de, French statesman (1755–1829), 147, 164, 165; nominates Bonaparte to command the armyof Italy, 174; his attitude as a Director, 181; co-operates in _coup d’état_ of Fructidor 1797, 191; only original Director left (July 1799), 209, 210; resigns (Nov. 1799), 211.

Barrosa, battle of (5 March 1811), 297.

Bartenstein, treaty of (April 1807), 248.

Barthélemy, François, Marquis de, French diplomatist (1747–1830), 156, 188, 189, 191.

Basire, Claude, French politician (1764–94), 117.

Basle, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34, 41; with fiefs in Alsace, 79.

—— bishopric of, part ceded to Baden (1803), 227; part to canton of Berne (1815), 345.

—— canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228.

—— treaties of (1795), 156, 157.

Basque Roads, affair in the (1809), 276.

Bassano, Duke of. _See_ Maret.

Bastille, capture of the (14 July 1789), 57, 58.

Batavian Republic founded (1795), 150; imitates the French constitutions, 193; turned into the kingdom of Holland (1806), 254, 255.

Battles: Abensberg (1809), 272; Albuera (1811), 297; Albufera (1811), 297; Aldenhoven (1794), 150; Alexandria (1801), 224; Altenkirchen (1796), 178; Arcis-sur-Aube (1814), 328; Arcola (1796), 176; Aspern (Essling) (1809), 273; Auerstädt (1806), 247; Austerlitz (1805), 244; Barrosa (1811), 297; Bautzen (1813), 309; Bergen (1799), 205; Biberach (1800), 219; Borodino (1812), 305; Braila (1809), 281; Brienne (1814), 319; Burgos (1808), 269; Busaco (1810), 296; Cairo (1799), 208; Caldiero (1796), 176; Caldiero (1805), 244; Camperdown (1797), 194; Cassano (1799), 203; Castiglione (1796), 175; Ceva (1796), 174; Champaubert (1814), 319; Copenhagen (1801), 222; Corunna (1809), 270; Craonne (1814), 328; Dego (1796), 174; Dennewitz (1813), 313; Dresden (1813), 312; Dubienka (1792), 122; Eckmühl (1809), 273; Elchingen (1805), 244; Engen (1800), 219; Espinosa (1808), 269; Essling (Aspern) (1809), 273; Ettlingen (1796), 178; Eylau (1807), 248; Famars (1793), 130; Figueras (1794), 150; First of June (1794), 145; Fleurus (1794), 144; Foksany (1788), 45; Friedland (1807), 249; Fuentes de Onor (1811), 297; the Geisberg (1793), 140; Genola (1799), 204; Giurgevo (1790), 88; Gross-Beeren (1813), 312; Gross-Gorschen (Lützen) (1813), 309; Hanau (1813), 314; Heliopolis (1800), 224; Hohenlinden (1800), 219; Hondschoten (1793), 140; Jemmappes (1792), 118; Jena (1806), 247; Kaiserslautern (1794), 144; the Katzbach (1813), 312; Kioge (1807), 252; Laon (1814), 328; Leipzig (1813), 314; Ligny (1815), 352; Loano (1795), 151, 173; Lodi (1796), 174; Lützen (Gross-Gorschen) (1813), 309; Maciejowice (1794), 152; Magnano (1799), 202; Maida (1806), 256; Marengo (1800), 218; Matchin (1791), 96; Medellin (1809), 275; Medina del Rio Seco (1808), 267; Millesimo (1796), 174; the Mincio (1814), 322; Mœskirchen (1800), 219; Mondovi (1796), 174; Montebello (1800), 218; Montenotte (1796), 174; Montereau (1814), 319; Montmirail (1814), 319; Mount Tabor (1799), 208; Nangis (1814), 319; Neerwinden (1793), 127; Neumarkt (1797), 186; the Nile (Aboukir Bay) (1798), 195; the Nive (1813), 316; the Nivelle (1813), 316; Novi (1799), 204; Ocana (1809), 276; Orthez (1814), 321; Pacy-sur-Eure (1793), 131; Paris (1814), 329; the Pyramids (1798), 195; Quatre Bras (1815), 352; Raab (1809), 273; Raclawice (1794), 151; Rivoli (1797), 176; Roliça (1808), 265; the Rymnik (1788), 45; Sacilio (1809), 273; St. Vincent (1797), 183; Salamanca (1812), 306; Saorgio (1794), 144; Silistria (1809), 281; Stockach (1799), 202; Svenska Sound (1790), 95; Talavera (1809), 275, 276; Tobac (1788), 45; Tolentino (1815), 346; Toulouse (1814), 332; Trafalgar (1805), 245; the Trebbia (1799), 203; Tudela (1808), 269; Unzmarkt (1797), 186; Valmy (1792), 115; Valsarno (1813), 315; Vauchamps (1814), 319; Vimeiro (1808), 265, 266; Vittoria (1813), 315; Wagram (1809), 274; Waterloo (1815), 353; Wattignies (1793), 140; Zielence (1792), 121, 122; Zurich (1799), 204.

Bautzen, battle of (20 May 1813), 309.

Bavaria, the Emperor Joseph’s designs on, 16, 17; its Elector also Elector Palatine, 34; condition in 1789, 37; invaded by Moreau (1796), 178; treaty of Pfaffenhofen, 180; promised to Austria by Bonaparte (1797), 193; occupied by Moreau (1800), 219; increased by the secularisations (1803), 227; invaded by the Austrians (1805), 243; receives the Tyrol and becomes a kingdom (1806), 245; receives Salzburg (1809), 257; member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; invaded by the Austrians (1809), 272; great internal reforms, 289; member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342; receives Mayence for the Tyrol (1815), 344. _See_ Charles Theodore, Maximilian Joseph.

Baylen, capitulation of (1808), 267, 268.

Bayonne besieged by the English (1813, 1814), 316, 321.

Beauharnais, Eugène de, step-son of Napoleon (1781–1824), 236, 238, 239, 244, 255, 256, 273, 308, 315, 321, 322, 345.

Beaulieu, Jean Pierre, Baron de, Austrian general (1725–1820), 174.

Beccaria, Cæsar Bonesana, Marquis de, Italian philosopher (1738–94), 26.

Belgium, opposition to the Emperor Joseph’s reforms in (1788), 15; his apparent success, 43; armed resistance in, 47; abolition of Belgian liberties, 47, 48; the Austrians driven from (1789), 64; the Belgian Republic formed (Jan. 1790), 65; struggle between the Van der Nootists and Vonckists, 92, 93; reconquered by the Austrians (Dec. 1790), 94; conquered by the French under Dumouriez (1792), 118; annexed to the French Republic, 118; rises against the French (1793), 126; Dumouriez driven from (1793), 127; reconquered by the French (1794), 144; organised as part of the French Republic, 150; cession to France agreed to by Austria at Leoben, 186; and at Campo-Formio (1797), 192, 193; organised into nine French departments, 230; England insists on its separation from France, 318; invaded by the Prince of Orange (1814), 321; Napoleon refuses to give up, 324; united with Holland into the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815), 344, 360.

Belgrade, taken by the Austrians (1789), 45.

Bellegarde, Henri, Comte de, Austrian general (1755–1831), on the Mincio (1814), 322.

Belluno, Duke of. _See_ Victor.

Bender, city of, taken by the Russians (1789), 45.

—— Blaise Colombeau, Baron, Austrian general (1713–98), 65, 93, 94.

Benevento, principality of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, 24; Talleyrand made prince of, 277.

Benezech, Pierre, French administrator (1745–1802), 166.

Benningsen, Levin Augustus Theophilus, Count, Russian general (1745–1826), 221, 248, 249, 311.

Bentinck, Lord William Charles Cavendish, English general (1774–1839), 307, 315, 322, 346.

Beresford, William Carr, Viscount, English general (1770–1856), 266, 297.

Berg, grand duchy of, created for Murat (1806), its extent, 252; member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; conferred on son of Louis Bonaparte (1808), 283.

Bergen, battles of (19 Sept. and 2 Oct. 1799), 205.

Bergen-op-Zoom, English repulsed from (1814), 321.

Berlin, occupied by Napoleon (1806), 247; decree issued at (1807), 251; University of, founded, 303, 304; the French driven from (1813), 308.

Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, Prince of Ponte Corvo (1806), Prince Royal of Sweden (1810), King Charles XIV. of Sweden (1818), (1764–1844), French ambassador to Austria (1798), 197; insulted at Vienna, 198; Minister of War (1799), 210; attacked by the Russians (1807), 247; commanded the Saxons at Wagram (1809), 274; Prince of Ponte Corvo, 277; elected Prince Royal of Sweden (1810), 279; signs treaty of Abo with Emperor Alexander (1812), 302; intrigues with Napoleon, 307, 308; invaded Germany (1813), 309; wins battle of Gross-Beeren, 312; and of Dennewitz, 313; defeated the Danes and exchanged Pomerania for Norway (1814), 320; rejected for throne of France, 330; got Norway, but had to give up Guadeloupe (1815), 347; one of Napoleon’s marshals, App. iv.

Bernard, Great St., Bonaparte crosses (1800), 218.

—— Little St., French reach the summit of (1795), 151.

—— of Saintes, Adrien Antoine, French politician (1750–1819), 139.

Berne, chief oligarchical canton of Switzerland in 1789, 41; occupies Geneva (1792), 125; occupied by the French (1798), 199; Vaud and Argau separated from (1803), 228; obtained part of the Bishopric of Basle (1815), 345.

Bernis, François Joachim de Pierre, Cardinal de, French statesman (1715–94), 19.

Bernstorf, Count Andrew, Danish statesman (1735–97), 32, 46, 120.

—— Count Christian, Danish statesman (1769–1835), 338.

Berthier, Louis Alexandre, Prince of Neufchâtel and Wagram, French general (1753–1815), 200, 216, 241, 239, 283, App. iv.

—— de Sauvigny, Louis Bénigne François, French administrator (1742–89), 59.

Bessarabia, conquered by the Russians under Potemkin (1789), 45; under Bagration (1810), 281; part of, ceded to Russia by treaty of Bucharest, 281.

Bessières, Jean Baptiste, Duke of Istria, French general (1768–1813), 267, 297, 309, App. iv.

Beugnot, Jacques Claude, Comte, French administrator (1761–1835), 331.

Biberach, battle of (9 May 1800), 219.

Bidassoa, the passage of, forced by the Spaniards (1739), 130; by the French (1794), 140.

Bigot de Préameneu, Félix Julien Jean, Comte, French jurist (1747–1825), 215.

Bilbao, taken by the French (1795), 151.

Billaud-Varenne, Jacques Nicolas, French statesman (1756–1819), 193, 134, 138, 139, 147, 149, 155.

Biron, Armand Louis de Gontaut, Duc de, French general (1747–93), 138.

Bischofswerder, Hans Rudolf, Baron von, Prussian statesman (♰1803), 31, 87.

Bishops, the Prince of Germany, 34, 39.

Black Legion of Brunswick raised, 293.

Blake, Joachim, Spanish general (♰1827), defeated at Albufera (1811), 247.

Blücher, Gebhard Lebrecht von, Prince of Wahlstatt, Prussian general (1742–1819), 309, 312, 318, 319, 328, 329, 350, 352, 353, 355.

Boeckh, Augustus, German scholar (1785–1861), 304.

Bohemia, opposition to Joseph’s reforms in, 15; the reforms suspended, 66; pacified by Leopold, 84.

Boissy-d’Anglas, François Antoine, Comte, French statesman (1756–1826), 155, 165, 168, 182.

Bologna, belonged to the Pope, 24; occupied by Bonaparte (1796), 175; merged in the Cisalpine Republic, 192; in the kingdom of Italy, 255; restored to the Pope (1815), 347.

Bonaparte, Caroline, Queen of Naples. _See_ Caroline.

Bonaparte, Elisa (1777–1820), 283.

—— Jerome (1784–1860), King of Westphalia. _See_ Jerome.

—— Joseph (1768–1844), 239 (1806), 255. _See_ Joseph.

—— Louis (1778–1846), 239, 254, 255. _See_ Louis.

—— Lucien (1775–1840), 210, 216, 223.

—— Napoleon (1769–1821) at the siege of Toulon (1793), 140; brings up artillery for the defence of the Convention (1795), 164; defeats the insurgents of Vendémiaire, 165; appointed to the command of the army of Italy (1796), 174; defeats the Sardinians, 174; conquers Lombardy, 174; makes armistice with the Pope, 175; defeats the Austrians at Castiglione, 175, at Arcola and Rivoli, 176; invades the Tyrol and signs Preliminaries of Leoben, 186; opposed the Clichians, 189; sends Augereau to Paris to help the Directors, 191; formed the Cisalpine Republic, 192; signs treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; commands army of the Interior, 194; takes Malta and invades Egypt (1798), 195; campaign in Syria (1799), 208; returns to France, 208; makes _coup d’état_ of 18 Brumaire, 210, 211; provisional First Consul, 211; First Consul, 214; internal policy, 215; forms the Bank of France and Code Civil, 215; foreign policy, 216, 217; wins battle of Marengo and conquers Italy, 218; First Consul of the Cisalpine Republic, 220; his Spanish policy, 223; concludes the treaty of Amiens (1802), 225; reorganises Switzerland, 228; Mediator of the Swiss Confederation, 229; makes Concordat with the Pope, 229; forms the prefectures, 230; educational reforms, 231; First Consul for life (1802), 232; arrests the English in France and occupies Hanover (1803), 233; execution of the Duc d’Enghien (1804), 235; Emperor of the French (1804), 236. _See_ Napoleon.

—— Pauline, Princess Borghese (1780–1825), 283.

Bonn, the university of, 40, 150.

Bonnier-d’Alco, Ange Elisabeth Louis Antoine, French politician (1749–1799), 202.

Bordeaux, 131, 327.

Borodino, battle of (7 Sept. 1812), 305.

Bosnia, invaded by the Austrians (1788), 43.

Bouillé, François Claude Amour, Marquis de, French general (1739–1800), 72, 97, 98, 100.

Boulogne, Napoleon’s camp at (1804–5), 241, 242.

Bourbon, Isle of (Réunion), restored to France (1815), 348.

Bourdon, Léonard Jean Joseph, French politician (1758–1816), 147.

Bourdon de Vatry, Marc Antoine, French administrator (1761–1828), 210.

Bourges, federalist army proposed to be formed at (1793), 131, 132.

Bournonville, Pierre de Riel, Comte de, French general (1752–1821), 330.

Brabant, Constitution of, abolished by the Emperor Joseph (1789), 47.

Braila, battle of (1810), 281.

Branicki, Francis Xavier, Polish statesman (♰1819), 121.

Braschi, Giovanni Angelo. _See_ Pius VI., Pope.

Breda, 48, 64.

Breisgau, the, granted to the Duke of Modena (1803), 226; to the Grand Duke of Baden (1805), 258.

Bremen, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; retained its independence (1803), 226; annexed to Napoleon’s Empire (1810), 282; one of the four free cities of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Brescia formed part of the Cisalpine Republic, 192.

Brest, blockaded by English fleet, 184; French fleet at, unable to break the blockade (1805), 242.

Brienne, battle of (29th Jan. 1814), 319.

Brigandage rife in France under the Directory, 181; put down by the Consulate, 215; rife in Calabria, 256.

Brissot, Jean Pierre, French politician (1754–1793), 101, 106, 107, 116, 129.

Brissotin section of the Girondin party in the Convention, 116.

Brittany, opposition to the Convention in, 131; pacified by Hoche, 180, 181.

Brixen, bishopric of, united to Austria (1803), 226.

Broglie, Victor François, Duc de, French general (1718–1804), 56.

Bruges, 64.

Bruix, Eustache, French admiral (1759–1805), 196.

Brumaire, _coup d’état_ of the 18th (1799), 210, 211.

Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne, French general (1763–1815), 199, 205, 219, 254, 356, App. iv.

Brunswick, Duchy of, merged in kingdom of Westphalia (1806), 258; a member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342.

Brunswick-Lüneburg, Duke of. _See_ Charles William Ferdinand.

Brunswick-Oels, Duke of. _See_ Frederick William.

Brussels, 15, 47, 48, 64, 94, 118, 144.

Bucharest, 45, 281.

Buenos Ayres, 264.

Bülow, Frederick William von, Prussian general (1755–1816), 309, 312, 313; detached to join Blücher in France (1814), 319, 320, 328.

Burgos, battle of (10 Nov. 1808), 269; Wellington fails to take (1812), and retreats from, 307.

Burke, Edmund, English orator (1730–97), 120.

Burrard, Sir Harry, English general (1755–1815), 266.

Busaco, battle of (27 Sept. 1810), 296.

Buttmann, Philip Charles, German scholar (1764–1829), 304.

Buzot, François Nicolas Léonard, French politician (1760–94), 116.

Buzotins, a section of the Girondins, 116.

Cabarrus, François, Spanish statesman (1752–1810), 21.

Cadiz, besieged by the French (1810–12), 296, 297.

Cadore, Duke of. _See_ Champagny.

Cadoudal, Georges, Chouan leader (1771–1804), 234, 235.

Caen, army organised by the Girondins against the Convention at (1793), 131.

Caillard, Antoine Bernard, French diplomatist (1737–1807), 215.

Cairo, taken by Bonaparte (1798), 195; the Mamelukes defeated at (1799), 208; taken by the English (1801), 224.

Caisse d’amortissement founded, 287, 288.

Calabria, brigandage in, encouraged by the English, 256.

Calder, Sir Robert, English admiral (1745–1818), his action (1805), 242.

Caldiero, battle of (12 Nov. 1796), 176; battle of (30 Oct. 1805), 244.

Cambacérès, Jean Jacques Régis, Duke of Parma, French statesman (1753–1824), 156, 159, 166, 182, 210, 214, 239, 287, 357.

Cambon, Joseph, French statesman (1754–1820), 129, 133, 288.

Cambrai, 353.

Camperdown, battle of (11 Oct. 1797), 194.

Campo-Chiaro, Duke of, Neapolitan statesman, 338, 346.

Campo-Formio, treaty of (17 Oct. 1797), 192, 193.

Campomanes, Don Pedro Rodriguez, Count of, Spanish statesman (1723–1802), 21.

Canning, George, English statesman (1770–1827), 295.

Cantons of Switzerland, 228, 345.

Cape of Good Hope taken by the English (1805), 264; retained by them (1815), 348.

Capitulations: of Ulm (1805), 243; of Baylen (1808), 267, 268; of Kulm (1813), 313.

Capo d’Istria, John, Count, Greek statesman (1776–1831), 337.

Carniola ceded to Napoleon (1809), 274.

Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, French statesman (1753–1823), 133, 134, 140, 148, 165, 177, 181, 191, 214, 216, 321, 352, 357.

Caroline, Marie, Queen of the Two Sicilies (1752–1814), 23.

—— Murat, Queen of Naples (1782–1839), 322, 345.

Carrier, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1756–1794), 139, 141, 149.

Cassano, battle of (27 April 1799), 203.

Castiglione, battle of (15 Aug. 1796), 175.

—— Duke of. _See_ Augereau.

Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount, Marquis of Londonderry, English statesman (1769–1822), his views on the way to carry on the war with Napoleon, 295; returns to office (1812), 301; his policy to form a fresh coalition, 301, 302; efforts to get Austria to join (1813), 311; sends expedition to Holland, 314; sent with full powers to France (1814), 318; persists in the war and calls up reinforcements for Blücher, 319, 320; opposition to the retention of Belgium by France, 324; signs treaty of Chaumont, 327; friendship with Metternich, 331; signs treaty of Paris, 332; one of the two men who did most to overthrow Napoleon, 334; English representative at the Congress of Vienna (1814), 337; signs treaty with France and Austria against Russia and Prussia, 340; disavows Bentinck’s Italian proclamation, 346; gets the Slave Trade condemned, 349; succeeded by Wellington at Vienna, 349; opposes Prussia’s schemes for punishing France (1815), 354; refuses to join the Holy Alliance, 355.

Catalonia, 144, 150, 151, 275.

Cathcart, William Schaw, Lord, English general (1755–1843), 264, 301, 323, 337.

Catherine II., Empress of Russia (1729–96) a benevolent despot, 4; attitude to other Powers of Europe (1789), 12, 13; alliance with Joseph II., 17; extension of Russia under, 18; policy in Poland, 18; internal policy, 19; war with the Turks (1789–90), 43–45; with the Swedes (1789–90), 45, 46; deprived of the Austrian alliance by Leopold, 95; makes peace with Sweden at Verela (1790), 95, 96; with the Turks at Jassy (1792), 96; attitude towards the French Revolution, 109, 121; invades Poland (1793), 121; signs second partition of Poland, 122; asserts she is fighting Jacobinism in Poland, 125; invades Poland (1795), 151; extinguishes independence of Poland, 152; receives the Comte d’Artois, 172; death (1796), 185.

Catherine, Grand Duchess of Oldenburg, Queen of Würtemburg (1788–1819), 300, 337.

—— Princess, of Würtemburg (1783–1835), marries Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia (1807), 258.

Cattaro, mouths of the river, ceded by Russia to France at Tilsit (1807), 250.

Caulaincourt, Armand Augustin Louis de, Duke of Vicenza, French statesman (1772–1827), 234, 239, 311, 316, 317, 323, 324, 329, 331, 332.

Cayenne restored to France (1814), 348.

Ceva, battle of (16 April 1796), 174.

Ceylon, taken by the English (1796), 264; retained in 1815, 348.

Chabot, François, French politician (1759–94), 117.

Chalier, Marie Joseph, French politician (1747–93), 131.

Chambéry, annexed to France (1814), 333; restored to King of Sardinia (1815), 354.

‘Chambre Introuvable’ (1815), 357, 358.

Champagny, Jean Baptiste Nompère de, Duke of Cadore, French statesman (1756–1834), 241.

Champaubert, battle of (10 Feb. 1814), 319.

Champ de Mars, Paris, massacre of (17 July 1791), 101.

Championnet, Jean Etienne, French general (1762–1800), 200, 203, 204.

Chaptal, Jean Antoine, Comte, French administrator (1756–1832), 216, 241.

Charles III., King of Spain (1716–88), benevolent despot, his reforms, 4, 21; commenced his career as a reforming monarch at Naples, 23.

—— IV., King of Spain (1748–1819), 21, 77, 79, 193, 126, 157, 183, 223, 232, 252, 253, 267.

—— XIII., King of Sweden, formerly Duke of Sudermania (1748–1818), 46, 110, 120, 171, 253, 279.

—— II., King of Etruria (1799–1863), 253, 347.

Charles Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Weimar (1757–1828), 38, 337, 342.

—— Emmanuel IV., King of Sardinia (1751–1819), 200.

—— Eugène, Duke of Würtemburg, (1728–93), 37, 38.

—— Frederick, Margrave of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach (1728–1811), 37, 79, 167, 180, 225, 227, 245, 258, 260.

—— Louis Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden (1786–1816), 258, 337, 342.

—— Theodore, Elector of Bavaria and Elector Palatine (1729–99), 37, 172, 180.

—— William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Prussian general (1735–1806), 32, 113, 114, 115, 116, 126, 246.

—— Archduke, Austrian general (1771–1847), elected Grand Duke of Belgium (1790), 94; commands the Austrian army in Germany (1796), 177; repulses Jourdan and Moreau, 178; effect of his success, 180; commands Austrian army in the Tyrol (1797), 185; defeated by Bonaparte, and signs Preliminaries of Leoben, 186; defeats Jourdan (1799), 202; and advances to the Rhine, 204; forced to retreat, 205; campaign against Moreau (1800), superseded, 219; invades Italy (1805), 243; defeated at Caldiero, 244; reorganises Austrian army, 271; invades Bavaria (1809), 272; defeated at Eckmühl, 273; fights battle of Aspern, 273; defeated at Wagram, 274.

Charter, the, of 4 June 1814, 350.

Chatham, John Pitt, Earl of, English general (1756–1820), 276.

Châtillon, Congress of (1814), 323, 324.

Chaumette, Pierre Gaspard, French politician (1763–94), 141.

Chaumont, treaty of (1 March 1814), 327, 328.

Chauvelin, François Bernard, Marquis de, French politician (1766–1832), 120.

Cherasco, armistice of (28 April 1796), 174.

Chernishev, Alexander, Count, Russian general, 308, 312, 313, 337.

Chestret, M., elected burgomaster of Liége (1789), 49.

Chiaramonti, Gregorio Barnaba Luigi. _See_ Pius VII., Pope.

Choczim, taken by the Austrians and Russians (1788), 43.

Choiseul, Etienne François, Duc de, French statesman (1719–85), made the ‘Pacte de Famille’ with Spain, 14.

Christian VII., King of Denmark (1749–1808), 32, 46, 171.

Cintra, Convention of (30 Aug. 1808), 266.

Circles, the executive divisions of the Holy Roman Empire, 36; abolished (1803), 225.

Cisalpine Republic, 192, 203, 220, 255.

Ciudad Rodrigo, taken by Wellington (Jan. 1812), 306.

Clancarty, Richard Trench, Earl of, English diplomatist (1767–1837), 337.

Clarke, Henri Jacques Guillaume, Duke of Feltre, French general (1765–1818), 241.

Clavière, Etienne, French politician (1735–93), 41, 114, 125.

Clement Wenceslas of Saxony, Archbishop-Elector of Trèves in 1789, 40.

Clementine Museum at Rome reorganised by Pope Pius VI., 24.

Clerfayt, François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Comte de, Austrian general (1733–98), 88, 150, 172.

Clichian party, 182, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191.

Club, Cordeliers. _See_ Cordeliers.

—— de Clichy, 182, 187.

—— Jacobin. _See_ Jacobin.

—— of 1789, 101.

Cobenzl, Count Louis, Austrian statesman (1753–1808), 192, 220, 233, 243, 270.

—— Count Philip, Austrian statesman (1741–1810), 126.

Coblentz, 150, 230, 344.

Coburg, Frederick Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Prince of, Austrian general (1737–1815), 43, 44, 45, 88, 127, 130, 144.

Cochon de Lapparent, Charles, French administrator (1749–1825), 182, 191.

Cochrane, Thomas, Lord, Earl of Dundonald, English admiral (1775–1860), 276.

Code, Civil, bases of, laid by the Convention, 156; Bonaparte’s commission to draw up, 215.

Codes of law promulgated by Napoleon, 287.

Colli, Louis Leonard Gaspard Venance, Baron, Sardinian general (1760–1811), 174.

Colloredo, Count Jerome, Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg in 1789, 39.

Collot-d’Herbois, Jean Marie, French politician (1750–96), 117, 133, 134, 138, 147, 149, 155.

Cologne, Archbishop of, an Elector in the Holy Roman Empire, 34.

—— archbishopric of, excellently ruled in 1789, 40; merged in France, 225; ceded to Prussia (1815), 344.

—— city of, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; taken by the French (1794), 150; ceded to Prussia (1815), 344.

Committee of General Defence, 127.

—— of General Security, 135, 136, 146, 148.

—— of Mercy, 143.

—— of Public Safety, the first chosen (April 1793), 127, 128; its work, 132, 133; formation of the Great, 133; growth of its power, 134; its system of government—the Reign of Terror, 135; its instruments—the Committee of General Security, 135, 136; the deputies on mission, 136, 137; laws of the Suspects and the Maximum, 137; the Revolutionary Tribunal, 137, 138; its power organised, 138, 139; its success, 139–141; opposition to, 141–143; overthrows the Hébertists, 142; the Dantonists, 145; its triumphs on land, 143, 144; failure at sea, 144, 145; Robespierre’s position in, 146; renewed by a quarter monthly after Robespierre’s fall, 148; its supremacy maintained, but its system changed, 148, 149; filled by members of the Plain, 156.

Commune of Paris overthrows the monarchy (Aug. 1792), 115; its energy, 114; insists on expulsion of the Girondins (June 1793), 129; becomes Hébertist and opposes the Committee of Public Safety, 141; becomes Robespierrist, and is decimated by the Convention, 147.

Conclusum of the Empire, how arrived at, 33, 34.

Concordat between the Pope and Bonaparte (1802), 229, 230, 277.

Condé, taken by the Austrians (1793), 130.

Condé, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de, French general (1736–1818), 106, 167, 178, 206, 207.

Condillac, Etienne-Bonnot, Abbé de, French philosopher (1715–80), 25.

Conegliano, Duke of. _See_ Moncey.

Confederation, Germanic. _See_ Germanic.

—— of the Rhine. _See_ Rhine.

—— of Switzerland. _See_ Switzerland.

—— of Targovitsa, asks Catherine to intervene in Poland (1795), 121.

Conferences: Erfurt (1808), 262; Pilnitz (1791), 102; Reichenbach, (1790), 87; Tilsit (1807), 249, 250.

Congresses: Châtillon (1814), 323, 324; the Hague (1799), 93, 94; Prague (1813), 311; Rastadt (1798), 186, 192, 202; Reichenbach (1790), 87; Sistova (1790), 88; Vienna (1814–15), 336–350.

Consalvi, Hercules, Cardinal, Italian statesman (1757–1824), 277, 337.

Conscription, established in France (1798), 201; in Germany, 289.

Constance, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34.

—— bishopric of, merged in Grand Duchy of Baden (1803), 227.

—— city of, taken by Massena (1799), 205.

Constantine, Grand Duke, brother of the Emperor Alexander (1779–1831), 312, 337.

Constantinople, great riot at (1807), 281.

Constituent Assembly: the Tiers Etat declares itself the National Assembly (June 1789), 53; oath of the Tennis Court, and Séance Royale, 54; session of 4 August, 60; makes the Constitution of 1791, 68–73; authority passed to, 97; discredited the executive, 98; dissolved (1791), 105.

Constitution, the French, of 1791, 68–73; revised, 101; completed, 103; compared with the Polish of 1791, 104, 105; its local arrangements confirmed by the Constitution of the Year III., 162.

—— the French, of 1793, 132, 138, 141.

—— the French, of the Year III. (1795), 156, 159, 160, 161, 162.

—— the French, of the Year VIII. (1799), 212–214; the Consulate, 213; the Legislature, 214, 215.

—— the French, of the Empire (1805), 240.

—— the French, promised by the Charter (1814), 350.

—— the Polish, of 1791, 104, 105; abrogated, 122.

Consulate, the, in France, 213.

Consuls, the (1799–1804), Bonaparte, Cambacérès, Le Brun, 214.

—— the Provisional (1799), Bonaparte, Sieyès, Roger Ducos, 211.

Continental Blockade against England, 250, 251, 255, 261, 282, 300, 301.

Convention, National, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 127, 132, 134, 147, 155, 163, 164, 165, 166.

Conventions: Alexandria (1800), 218; Alkmaar (1799), 205; Cintra (1808), 268; Leoben (1797), 186; Reichenbach (1790), 87, 88; Tauroggen (1812), 308.

Copenhagen, battle of (2 April 1801), 222; bombarded and the Danish fleet seized by the English (1807), 252.

Cordeliers Club at Paris, 101, 141.

Corfu, occupied by the French (1797), 192. _See_ Ionian Islands.

Cornwallis, Charles, Marquis, English general (1738–1805), 197.

Corsica, ceded to France by Genoa (1768), 27; occupied by the English (1793), 145; abandoned by them (1796), 183.

Corunna, battle of (16 Jan. 1809), 270.

_Corvée_, or forced labour, 5, 6, 16.

Council of Ancients, established in France (1795), 161, 162, 189, 190, 209, 210, 211.

Council of Five Hundred, established in France (1795), 161, 162, 182, 189, 190, 209, 210, 211.

—— of State, established in France under the Consulate (1799), 213, 231, 240.

Court, Napoleon’s, 238, 239, 285, 286.

Couthon, Georges Auguste, French politician (1756–94), 133, 135, 147.

Cracow, university of, reorganised, 104; Kosciuszko raises standard of Polish independence at (1794), 151; given to Austria at third partition of Poland (1795), 152; joined to Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1809), 274; given to Austria as a free city (1815), 342.

Cradock, Sir John Francis, Lord Howden, English general (1762–1839), 269, 275.

Craonne, battle of (7 March 1814), 328.

Croatia ceded to Napoleon (1809), 274.

Cuesta, Don Gregorio Garcia de la, Spanish general (1740–1812), 267, 275, 276.

Curaçao, restored to Holland by England (1815), 348.

Custine, Adam Philippe, Comte de, French general (1740–93), 118, 138.

Czartoryski, Prince Adam George, Polish statesman (1770–1865), 337, 339.

Dalberg, Charles Theodore de, German prelate (1744–1817), Co-adjutor-Archbishop-Elector of Mayence in 1789, 39; retained as Arch-Chancellor of the Empire with new territory (1803), 225; Grand Duke of Frankfort (1806), 259; received Fulda and Hanau and became Prince Primate of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; suggested that Napoleon should be Emperor of Germany, 302; lost his territorial sovereignty (1815), 343.

—— Emeric Joseph, Duc de, French statesman (1773–1833), 330, 338.

Dalmatia, belonged to Venice in 1789, 27; ceded to Austria (1797), 192; annexed by Napoleon (1805), 245. _See_ Illyrian Provinces.

—— Duke of. _See_ Soult.

Dalrymple, Sir Hew Whiteford, English general (1750–1830), 266.

Danton, George Jacques, French statesman (1759–94), 101, 107, 114, 117, 120, 127, 129, 133, 134, 135, 136, 142, 143.

Dantzic promised to Prussia by the treaty of Warsaw, 85; the Poles refuse to surrender, 87; given to Prussia at second partition of Poland (1793), 122; besieged and taken by the French (1806), 247, 248; French garrison left in 1812, 308; besieged (1812–14), 319.

—— Duke of. _See_ Lefebvre.

Danubian Principalities, the, promised to Alexander by Napoleon (1807), 250.

Dardanelles, the, forced by an English fleet (1807), 280.

Daru, Pierre Antoine Noël Bruno, Comte, French administrator (1767–1829), 241.

Daunou, Pierre Claude François, French politician (1761–1840), 156.

Dauphiné, influence of the Assembly in (1788), on the elections to the States-General in France, 51.

David, Jacques Louis, French painter (1748–1825), 357.

Davout, Louis Nicolas, Duke of Auerstädt, Prince of Eckmühl, French general (1770–1823), 247, 272, 319, 320, App. iv.

Debry, Jean Antoine, French politician (1760–1834), 202.

Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789), 60.

—— of Saint Ouen (1814), 332, 333.

Decrès, Denis, Duke, French admiral (1761–1820), 216, 240.

Defermon, Joseph, Comte, French administrator (1756–1831), 240.

Dego, battle of (15 April 1796), 174.

Delacroix, Charles, French politician (1740–1805), 166, 189, 190.

Demarcation, line of, protecting Northern Germany, agreed to at treaty of Basle between France and Prussia (1795), 157; its effect on the position of Prussia, 170; proposal to extend (1796), 179; violated by the occupation of Hanover (1804), 242; this violation leads Prussia to prepare for war, 246.

Denmark, under Russian influence in 1789, 13; its prosperity and reforms, 32; the king a member of the Holy Roman Empire as Duke of Holstein, 34; attacks Sweden (1788), but forced to make peace, 46; remains neutral during the general war with France, 120, 124, 171; joins League of the North and is attacked by England (1801), 222; Copenhagen bombarded and the Danish fleet seized by England (1807), 254; Sweden declares war against (1808), 279; a faithful ally of Napoleon, 302; invaded by Bernadotte and forced to exchange Norway for Swedish Pomerania (1814), 320; gets the Duchy of Lauenburg for Swedish Pomerania (1815), 347; cedes Heligoland to England (1815), 348.

Dennewitz, battle of (6 Sept. 1813), 313.

Deputies of the Convention sent on mission, 128; put down the Girondin movement, 131; an instrument of the Reign of Terror; their work—in the provinces, 136; with the armies, 136, 137.

Desaix, Louis Charles Antoine, French general (1768–1800), 178, 208, 219.

Desmoulins, Camille, French politician (1762–94), 56, 133, 142, 143.

Despots, the benevolent, of the eighteenth century, 4, 5; the Emperor Joseph II., 15, 16; the Empress Catherine of Russia, 19; Charles III. of Spain, 21; Leopold of Tuscany, 24; Ferdinand of Parma, 25; Frederick the Great of Prussia, 29; Gustavus III. of Sweden, 33; Charles Theodore of Bavaria and Charles Frederick of Baden, 37.

Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), duchy of, 38, 79; merged in France (1803), 227.

Diderot, Denis, French philosopher (1713–84), 4, 9, 19.

Diet, the Imperial, of the Holy Roman Empire (Reichstag), 33, 35.

Diet, the, of the Confederation of the Rhine (1806), 260.

—— the, of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Dignitaries, the Grand, of Napoleon’s Empire, 239.

Dillon, Arthur, French general (1750–94), 115.

—— Theobald, French general (1743–92), 111.

Directors, the, of the French Republic (1795–99): elected Oct. 1795, Barras, Carnot, Letourneur, Revellière-Lépeaux, Reubell, 165, 166; May 1797, Barthélémy succeeds Letourneur, 188; Sept. 1797, François de Neufchâteau and Merlin of Douai succeed Barthélémy and Carnot, 191; May 1798, Treilhard succeeds François de Neufchâteau, 195; May 1799, Sieyès succeeds Reubell, 209; June 1799, Ducos, Gohier, and Moulin succeed Merlin of Douai, Revellière-Lépeaux, and Treilhard, 211.

Directory, the, its functions as established by the Constitution of the Year III., 160, 161; foreign policy left to Reubell, 169, 179; military affairs to Carnot, 177; its internal policy, 180, 181; struggle with the Clichians, 189, 190; _coup d’état_ of Fructidor 1797, 191; interferes in the elections of 1798 to the Legislature, 196; its weakness (1799), 209; struggle with the Legislature (1799), 209; abolished 18 Brumaire (1799), 211.

Dombrowski, John Henry, Polish general (1755–1818), 206.

‘Dotations,’ 286.

Dresden, battle of (27 Aug. 1813), 312.

Drouet, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1763–1824), 168.

Dubienka, battle of (17 July 1792), 122.

Dubitza taken by the Austrians (1788), 43.

Dubois-Crancé, Edmond Louis Alexis, French politician (1747–1814), 210.

Duckworth, Sir John Thomas, English admiral (1747–1817), 280.

Ducos, Roger, French politician (1754–1816), 209, 211.

Dugommier, Jean François Coquille, French general (1721–94), 140, 144, 150, 151.

Dumont, André, French politician (1764–1836), 139.

Dumouriez, Charles François, French general (1739–1823), 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 126, 127.

Duncan, Adam, Viscount, English admiral (1731–1804), 193, 194.

Dunkirk besieged by the Duke of (1793), 130; relieved by Houchard, 140.

‘Duodecimo duchies’ of Germany in 1789, 40.

Duphot, Léonard, French general (1770–97), 200.

Dupont de l’Étang, Pierre, Comte, French general (1765–1838), 267, 268, 331.

Dufort, Amédee Bretagne Malo, Comte de, French courtier (1770–1836), 99.

Duroc, Géraud Christophe Michel, Duke of Friuli, French general (1772–1813), 217, 234, 239.

Düsseldorf, 37, 172, 259.

Ecclesiastical princes of the Holy Roman Empire, 34, 39, 40; their states secularised (1803), 170.

Eckmühl, battle of (22 April 1809), 273.

—— Prince of. _See_ Davout.

Education, national system established before 1789 in Spain, 21; in Portugal, 22; in Tuscany, 24; in Parma, 25; in Lombardy, 26; in Denmark, 32; in Baden, 37; attempted in Poland, 104; reforms in, attempted by the Convention in France, 156; Bonaparte’s scheme of, 231; Napoleon’s system of, 258; established in Prussia by Humboldt, 303, 304.

Egypt, conquered by Bonaparte (1798), 195; his administration of, and reconquest (1799), 208; French expelled from, by the English (1801), 224; failure of English expedition to (1808), 264.

Ehrenbreitstein, fortress, taken by Marceau (1795), 172.

Elba, declared a French island, 230; granted to Napoleon (1814), 332; his escape from (1815), 349, 351.

Elchingen, battle of (20 Oct. 1805), 244.

—— Duke of. _See_ Ney.

Elections, the, to the States-General in France (1789), 50, 51.

Electors, the eight, of the Holy Roman Empire in 1789, 34; the ten established in 1803, 225.

Elizabeth, Madame, sister of Louis XVI. (1764–94), 61, 68.

Elliot, Hugh, English diplomatist (1752–1830), 78.

Elsinore, batteries at, passed by the English fleet (1801), 222.

Elten, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; and again (1815), 344.

Elwangen, the Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34.

_Emigrés_, Belgian, strong measures taken against (1789), 48.

—— French, 59, 63, 81, 97, 106, 108, 109, 113, 137, 154, 166, 167, 169, 172, 188, 214, 215, 351, 357, 358. _See_ Condé.

Emperor of the French, Napoleon declares himself (1804), 236; refuses to be Emperor of Germany, 302.

—— Holy Roman, position of, 34; Francis II. abandons the title of (1804), 236. _See_ Francis II., Joseph II., Leopold II.

Empire, Holy Roman, 17, 33–36, 79–80, 108, 121, 193, 225–227.

—— Napoleon’s, its establishment, 237, 238; Grand Dignitaries of, 239; institutions and administrative system, 240; greatest extension of (1810), 282, 283.

Engen, battle of (3 May 1800), 219.

Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Duc d’ (1722–1804), shot at Vincennes, 235.

England, condition of, 8; Member of the Triple Alliance, 13, 32; alliance with Portugal, 21; condition in 1789, 27, 28; looks favourably on the French Revolution, 63; the affair of Nootka Sound, 77, 78; the Emperor Leopold appeals to, 86; attitude towards the French Republic, 120; France declares war against (1793), 120; paymaster of the coalition against France, 125, 126; occupies Toulon, 139; and Corsica, 145; withdrew subsidies from Prussia, 153; national feeling in, against France, 154; supported the French _émigrés_, 154, 166, 167; did not wish for peace with France, 169; Spain declares war against, 183; attempts at peace, 184, 190; blockades and defeats the Dutch fleet, 193, 194; takes Minorca and Malta, 195; forms the second coalition, 197; Bonaparte attacks her commerce through the Neutral League of the North, 222; drives the French out of Egypt, 224; the Peace of Amiens, 225; recommencement of the war with France, 233; Napoleon’s project of invading, 241, 242; forms the third coalition, 243; the Continental Blockade against and its effect, 251; seizes the Danish fleet, 252; decides to actively intervene on the Continent, 263, 295; hitherto contented with taking colonies and detached expeditions, 264; sends an army to Portugal, 265, 266; promises subsidies to Austria (1809), 271; the Walcheren Expedition, 276; Castlereagh’s and Canning’s theories, 295; forms fresh coalition, 301, 302; greatness of her share in overthrowing Napoleon, 334; colonial gains made at the Congress of Vienna, 348; insists on abolition of the Slave Trade, 348, 349; refuses to join the Holy Alliance, 355. _See_ Castlereagh, Pitt.

Erfurt, bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227.

—— conference at (1808), 262.

Erthal, Baron Francis Louis of, Prince-Bishop of Bamberg and Würtzburg in 1789, 39.

—— Baron Frederick Charles of, Archbishop-Elector of Mayence and Prince-Bishop of Worms in 1789, 39.

Espinosa, battle of (11 Nov. 1808), 269.

Essen, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227.

Essling or Aspern, battle of (21, 22 May 1809), 273.

—— Prince of. _See_ Massena.

Esterhazy, Nicholas Joseph, Prince (1714–90), 91.

Etruria, kingdom of, 220, 253. _See_ Louis.

Ettlingen, battle of (June 1796), 178.

Eugène de Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy. _See_ Beauharnais.

Ewart, Joseph, English diplomatist (1760–92), English representative at the Congress of Reichenbach (1790), 87.

Eylau, battle of (8 Feb. 1807), 248.

Fabry, M., elected burgomaster of Liége (1789), 49.

Famars, battle of (24 May 1793), 130.

Faypoult, Guillaume Charles, French administrator (1752–1817), 166, 182.

Felino, Marquis of. _See_ Tillot.

Feltre, Duke of. _See_ Clarke.

Féraud, Jean, French politician (1764–1795), killed in rising of 1 Prairial, 155.

Ferdinand VII., King of Spain (1784–1833), 267, 358.

—— IV., King of the Two Sicilies (1751–1825), 23, 120, 121, 171, 200, 203, 256, 264, 346, 359.

—— III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, second son of the Emperor Leopold (1769–1824), 83, 120, 157, 171, 200, 206, 220, 225, 226, 260, 347.

—— Duke of Parma and Piacenza, 25, 174, 175.

—— Archduke, third son of Maria Theresa (1754–1806), 26.

Ferrara, Legation of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, 24; occupied by Bonaparte (1796), 175; part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192; of the kingdom of Italy (1805), 255; restored to the Pope (1815), 347.

Ferrari, Raphael di, Doge of Genoa in 1789, 27.

Fersen, Axel, Count (1759–1810), 113, 152.

Fesch, Joseph, uncle of Napoleon (1763–1839), 239, 277.

Feudalism, 3, 6, 8, 28, 60, 199, 256, 259, 288, 289, 290, 297, 303, 361.

Fichte, John Theophilus, German philosopher (1762–1814), 304.

Figueras, battle of (20 Nov. 1794), 150, 151.

Filangieri, Gaetano, Neapolitan political writer (1752–88), 23.

Finance, Napoleon’s system of, 287, 288.

Finland, belonged to Sweden (1789), 32; campaigns of Gustavus III. in 1788, 45, 46; (1790), 95; conquered by the Emperor Alexander (1808), 250, 254, 279; ceded to Russia by Bernadotte in exchange for Norway (1812), 302.

Firmian, Charles Joseph, Count, Austrian statesman (1716–82), 26.

Fitzherbert, Alleyne, Lord St. Helens, English diplomatist (1753–1839), 78.

Five Hundred, Council of. _See_ Council.

Flanders, the Estates of, declare their independence of Austria (1789), 64.

Flesselles, Jacques de, French administrator (1721–89), 58.

Fleurus, battle of (26 June 1794), 144.

Florence, 200, 283. _See_ Tuscany.

Florida Blanca, Joseph Monino, Count of, Spanish statesman (1728–1809), 21, 77, 78.

Flushing taken by the English (1809), 276.

Foksany, battle of (31 July 1789), 45.

Foligno, armistice of, between the Pope and Bonaparte (1796), 175.

Fontainebleau, treaty of (1808), 252, 253; Pope Pius VII. taken to, 278; Napoleon abdicates at (1814), 331.

Fontanes, Louis de, French writer (1757–1821), 288.

Forfait, Pierre Alexandre Laurent, French administrator (1752–1807), 216.

Fouché, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, French politician (1763–1820), 210, 216, 241, 357.

Foullon de Doué, Joseph François, French administrator (1715–89), 59.

Fox, Charles James, English statesman (1749–1806), 245, 247, 264.

France, serfdom and feudalism practically extinct, 6; why the Revolution broke out, 8; position in 1789, 19, 20; elections to the States-General (1789), 49, 51; result of the capture of the Bastille in (July 1789), 59, 60; divided into departments, 68, 69; state of, in 1791, 98; effect of the flight to Varennes on, 101, 102; wishes for war, 107; exasperated by Brunswick’s proclamation, 113; invaded (1792), 114; (1793), 130; opposition to the Convention (1793), 131, 132; submits to the Reign of Terror, 141; becomes a vast arsenal, 143; after the victory of Fleurus rejects the Terror, 148; detests the Convention because of the Terror (1795), 163; but would not rise against it, 164; internal peace established (1796), 180; state of (1796), 181; acquiesced in the _coup d’état_ of Fructidor (1797), 191; state of (1798), weary of politics, 196; welcomed Bonaparte’s return (1799), 210; pacified under the Consulate, 215; organisation into prefectures, 230; popularity of Bonaparte in (1802), 231; enthusiastically welcomes the Empire, 237; conduct to the Pope damaged Napoleon’s popularity in, 278; Napoleon’s autocratic rule in, abolition of individual liberty and representative institutions, 284; indisposed to support Napoleon (1813), 315; would not rise to defend France in 1814 as in 1793, 322; weary of the military policy of Napoleon and physically exhausted, 324–326; reduced to its limits of 1792, 333; distrusts Louis XVIII., 351; welcomes Napoleon back (1815), 351, 352; difference of its attitude in 1814 and 1815, 353, 354; reduced to its limits of 1789, 354; reactionary government of Louis XVIII., 357, 358.

Francis II., Holy Roman Emperor, 1. Emperor of Austria (1768–1835), succeeded his father Leopold (1792), 110; elected and crowned Emperor, 112; war with France, 112, 113; loses Belgium, 118; regarded himself as duped by being left out of second partition of Poland (1793), 122; makes Thugut his Foreign Minister, 126; his armies invade France, 130, 139; repulsed, 140; receives Cracow and rest of Galicia at final partition of Poland (1795), 152; change in his attitude towards France, 153, 154; exchanges French prisoners for Madame Royale, 168; appealed to his people’s patriotism against Bonaparte (1796), 176; signs Convention of Leoben (1797), 186; and treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; again prepares for war with France (1798), 197, 201; was more afraid of Russia than France, 206; signs treaty of Lunéville and dismisses Thugut (1801), 220; declares himself Emperor of Austria (1804), 236; forms coalition with Russia and England, and invades Italy and Bavaria (1805), 243; signs treaty of Pressburg, 245; prepares for a fresh war, and tries to rouse a national German spirit, 270, 271; invades Italy and Bavaria (1809), 272; makes treaty of Vienna, and dismisses Stadion, 274; appoints Metternich State Chancellor, 275; gives his daughter Marie Louise to Napoleon, 294; invades Russia as Napoleon’s ally (1812), 303; attempts to mediate between Napoleon and the allies, 310; declares war against Napoleon (1813), 311; does not want to overthrow Napoleon (1814), 316, 317, 324; signs treaty of Chaumont, 327; inclined to side with England against Russia and Prussia, 334; receives the allied monarchs at Vienna (1814), 337; signs secret treaty with England and France (3 Jan. 1815), 340; obtains the duchy of Parma for his daughter Marie Louise, 346, 347; joins the Holy Alliance, 355; greatly weakened actually if not territorially by the great war, 359.

Francis IV., of Este, grandson of Hercules III., Duke of Modena (1779–1846), 347.

—— Prince, of Prussia, (1797), 189.

François de Neufchâteau, Nicolas, Comte, French politician (1750–1828), 190, 191, 195, 196.

Franconia invaded by Jourdan (1796), 177, 178; by Napoleon (1805), 244.

Frankenberg, Cardinal, Archbishop of Malines, 47, 65.

Frankfort-on-the-Main, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; Leopold crowned Emperor at (1790), 89; Francis crowned Emperor at (1792), 112; held to ransom by Custine (1792), 118; taken by Jourdan (1796), 177; maintained as a free city (1803), 226; the Proposals of (1813), 316; maintained as a free city and member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Frankfort, Grand Duchy of, created (1806), 259, 260.

Frederick II., King of Prussia, ‘the Great’ (1712–86), typical benevolent despot, 4, 29; decay of Prussia after his reign, 5; opposed Austrian scheme of exchanging Belgium for Bavaria, 16, 17; Joseph’s admiration for, 17; suggested the partition of Poland, 18; his policy, 30.

—— VI., King of Denmark (1768–1839), 32, 302, 320, 337, 347.

—— I., Duke, afterwards King, of Würtemburg (1754–1816), 225, 245, 258, 347.

—— Augustus I., Elector, afterwards King, of Saxony (1750–1827), 38, 179, 250, 259, 261, 274, 341.

—— Eugène, Duke of Würtemburg (♰1797), 180.

—— William II., King of Prussia (1744–97), his character and policy, 30, 31; intrigues with the Turks against Austria, 45; encourages the Belgian patriots, 48, 64; occupies Liége, 63; sends help to the Belgians, 65; makes treaty with the Poles, 85; intrigues against Austria, 85, 86; makes Convention of Reichenbach (1790), 87; won over by Leopold, 88; signs Declaration of Pilnitz with Leopold, 105; and treaty with Leopold, 109; refuses to break with Austria, 111; directed the policy of the Emperor Francis (1792), 112; orders retreat from France, 116; invades Poland and signs second partition (1793), 122; makes Haugwitz his minister, 126; driven from Warsaw (1794), 151; receives Warsaw in final partition of Poland (1795), 152; yields to the anti-Austrian party at his Court, and becomes slack in the war against France, 153; signs treaty of Basle with France (1795), 157; refuses to make alliance with France (1796), 170; signs secret supplement to the treaty of Basle, 179; death, 197.

Frederick William III., King of Prussia (1770–1840), accession (1797), 197; insists on strict neutrality, 197; attitude in 1799, 206; admires Bonaparte, but refuses to make alliance with him, 217; his territorial accessions (1803), 227; persists in his neutrality, 234, 242; inclines to war (1805), 246; utterly defeated by Napoleon at Jena, 247; signs treaty of Bartenstein with Russia, 248; spared by Napoleon on the intercession of Alexander, 250; summoned Stein and Scharnhorst to office, 290; forced to dismiss Stein, 301; obliged to sign alliance with Napoleon (1812), 304; calls out the Landwehr and declares war against Napoleon (1813), 308; desires to be revenged on France, 317; enters Paris (1814), 329; his intimacy with the Emperor Alexander, 334; present at the Congress of Vienna, 337; desires the whole of Saxony, 339, 340; gets a portion only, 341; with part of Poland, but not Warsaw, 342; and Rhenish Prussia, 344; joins the Holy Alliance, 355.

Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Oels (1771–1815), 293, 337.

Free Cities of the Holy Roman Empire in 1789, their College in the Diet, 34, 35; reduced to six (1803), 226; reduced to four (1815), 343.

Freisingen, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227.

Fréjus, Napoleon landed at, on his return from Egypt (1799), 209.

French philosophers of the 18th century contrasted with the German, 9.

Fréron, Louis Stanislas, French politician (1765–1802), 147, 155, 182.

Fribourg, canton of Switzerland, 228.

Friedland, battle of (14 June 1807), 249.

Friuli, Duke of. _See_ Duroc.

Fructidor, _coup d’état_ of 18th (4th Sept. 1797), 191.

Fuentes de Onor, battle of (5 May 1811), 297.

Fulda, bishopric of (1803), 227, 260.

Gaeta, siege and capture by the French (1806), 256.

—— Duke of. _See_ Gaudin.

Galicia, Western, obtained by Austria at third partition of Poland (1795), 152; ceded to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1809), 274; restored to Austria (1815), 342.

Gambier, James, Lord, English admiral (1756–1833), 277.

Gasparin, Thomas Augustin de, French politician (1750–93), 133.

Gaudin, Martin Michel Charles, Duke of Gaeta, French statesman (1756–1844), 215, 216, 240, 287.

Geisberg, battle of the (26 Dec. 1793), 140.

Geneva, its condition as an independent republic in 1789, 41; occupied by the Bernese troops (1792), 125; united to France, 228, 230; made a canton of Switzerland by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 345.

Genoa, its position in 1789, 27; formed into the Liguria Republic (1797), 192; besieged by the Austrians (1799), 203, 206, 218; annexed to Napoleon’s Empire, 243, 255; capital of a French department, 283; occupied by the English (1814), 315; his proclamation at, 322; united to the kingdom of Sardinia (1815), 346.

Genola, battle of (4 Nov. 1799), 204.

Gensonné, Armand, French politician (1758–93), 106.

Gentz, Friedrich von, German statesman (1764–1832), 291, 292, 337.

George III., King of England (1738–1820), 120.

Germanic Confederation formed (1815), 342, 343.

Germany, condition of, in 1789, 33–40; spread of revolutionary ideas in, 109; resettlement of (1803), 225–227; Napoleon’s rearrangement of (1806), 257–261; Stadion’s attempt to rouse a national spirit in, 270, 271; reforms made in, under French influence, 288, 289; growth of a national spirit against the French in, 291–295; national rising in, 314; resettled at Congress of Vienna, 342, 345. _See_ Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, Saxony, Würtemburg.

German literary movement at Weimar, 38.

German philosophers of the 18th century compared with the French, 9.

Germinal, Riot of the 12th (1 April 1795), in Paris, 155.

Ghent, 64, 341, 352.

Girondins, French political party, in the Legislative Assembly, 106; in favour of war, 107; their sections in the Convention, 116; attacked the Mountain, 117; views on the King’s trial, 119; struggle with the Mountain, 128, 129; overthrown (2 June 1793), 129; attempt to raise the provinces of France against the Convention, 131; the leaders guillotined, 138; recall of the survivors to the Convention (1795), 154; they obtain power, 155.

Giurgevo, battle of (8 July 1790), 88; armistice of (19 Sept. 1790), 88.

Glarus, 228.

Gnesen, province of, ceded to Prussia at second partition of Poland (1793), 123.

Goa, 224.

Gobel, Jean Baptiste Joseph, French bishop (1727–94), 70, 141.

Godoy, Don Manuel de, Prince of the Peace, Spanish statesman (1767–1851), 77, 126, 154, 157, 183, 255, 266, 267.

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, German poet (1749–1832), 9, 10, 38.

Gohier, Louis Jerome, French politician (1746–1830), 209, 211.

Goltz, Bernhard William, Baron von, Prussian statesman (1730–95), 86.

Göttingen, university of, 39.

Gouvion-Saint-Cyr, Laurent, French general (1764–1830), 275, App. iv.

Graham, Sir Thomas, Lord Lynedoch, English general (1751–1843), 314, 321.

Grand Elector, proposed by Sieyès in 1799 but rejected by Bonaparte, 213.

Grand Livre, Cambon’s creation of, continued by Napoleon, 288.

Greece, 257.

Grégoire, Henri, French politician (1750–1831), 53.

Grenelle, plot to attack the camp of (1796), 181.

Grenville, Thomas, English diplomatist (1755–1846), 197.

—— William Wyndham, Lord, English statesman (1759–1834), Pitt’s foreign secretary (1790–1801), 120, 166, 167, 169.

Grisons, republic of the, 41; occupied by the Archduke Charles (1799), 202; Suvórov in, 205; Macdonald invades (1800), 218, 219; formed into a canton of Switzerland by Bonaparte (1803), 228; and retained by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344.

Grodno, Diet of (24 Sept. 1793), second partition of Poland agreed to at, 122.

Gross-Beeren, battle of (23 Aug. 1813), 312.

Gross-Gorschen (Lützen), battle of (2 May 1813), 309.

Grouchy, Emmanuel, Marquis de, French general (1766–1847), 353, App. iv.

Guadeloupe, French West India island, conquered by the English, 154; restored to France by treaty of Amiens (1802), 232; reconquered by the English (1810), 276; returned to France by Sweden (1815), 347.

Guadet, Marguerite Élie, French politician (1758–94), 106, 129.

Guastalla, duchy of, granted to Pauline Bonaparte by Napoleon, 283; granted with Parma to the Empress Marie Louise (1815), 347.

Guerilla warfare against the French in Spain, 268, 297.

Guiana, 155, 191, 223, 232, 348.

Gustavus III., King of Sweden (1746–92), a benevolent despot of the 18th century, 4; his _coup d’état_ of 1772 and reforms, 33; invades Russian Finland (1788), 45; makes peace with Denmark (1789), 46; overthrows the power of the nobility, 46; sympathy with Marie Antoinette, 67, 68; defeated by the Russians (1790), 95; makes treaty of Verela with the Empress Catherine (1790), 95, 96; proposes to rescue the French royal family, 109; murdered, 110.

Gustavus IV., King of Sweden (1778–1837), 110, 243, 253, 254, 279.

Hague, the, the Stadtholder driven from (1787), 31; congress at (1790), 93, 94; capital moved from, to Amsterdam by Louis Bonaparte, 255.

Hainault, Estates of, suppressed by the Emperor Joseph (1789), 47.

Hamburg, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; English trade removed from Amsterdam to, 184; retained its independence (1803), 226; annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282; taken by the Russians (1813), 308; recovered by Vandamme, 309; defended by Davout (1813–14), 319, 320; a free city of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Hanau granted to Dalberg, Grand Duke of Frankfort (1806), 260; battle of (30 Oct. 1813), 314.

Hanover, Electorate of, independently administered under the King of England, 38, 39; bishopric of Osnabrück merged in (1803), 227; occupied by the French under Mortier (1803), 233, 242; promised to Prussia and offered to England by Napoleon (1806), 247; part of, merged in kingdom of Westphalia, 258; and part annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282; a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342.

Hanriot, François, French politician (1761–94), 129, 147.

Hardenberg, Charles Augustus, Count afterwards Prince von, Prussian statesman (1750–1822), negotiated treaty of Basle (1795), 157; opposed alliance with France (1796), 170; became Minister for Foreign Affairs (1803), 234; and State Chancellor (1807), 248; completes the work of Stein (1809), 303; accedes to the Proposals of Frankfort (1813), 316; signs Provisional Treaty of Paris (1814), 332; Prussian Plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 337.

—— William, Count von, Hanoverian statesman (1754–1826), 337.

Harris, Sir James, Earl of Malmesbury. _See_ Malmesbury.

Hassan Pasha, Turkish admiral, 45.

Hatry, Jacques Maurice, French general (1740–1802), 193.

Haugwitz, Christian Henry Charles, Count von, Prussian statesman, (1752–1832) a partisan of France and enemy of Austria, 111; appointed Foreign Minister (1792), 126; in favour of peace with the French Republic, 153; but against an alliance (1796), 170; advocated a compromise, 179; dismissed as too friendly to France (1803), 234; signs treaty of Schönbrunn (1805), 247; finally dismissed (1807), 248.

Hébert, Jacques René, French politician (1755–94), 141, 142.

Hébertists, the, 141, 142.

Heidelberg ceded to Baden, 227.

Heligoland, ceded by Denmark to England (1815), 348.

Heliopolis, battle of (20 March 1800), 224.

Helvetian Republic founded (1798), 199; replaced by the Confederation of Switzerland (1803), 228.

Henry, Prince, of Prussia (1726–1802), 111.

Hérault-Séchelles, Marie Jean, French politician (1760–94), 133.

Hercules III., Duke of Modena (1727–1803), 25, 26, 174, 175, 192, 226.

Herder, Johann Gottfried, German philosopher (1744–1803), 9, 38.

Herford, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227.

Hermann, Russian general, defeated at Bergen (1799), 205.

Hertzberg, Ewald Frederick, Count von, Prussian statesman (1725–1795), 30, 31, 85, 87, 88.

Hesse-Cassel, its condition in 1789, 38; made an electorate (1803), 225; increased in size, 227; merged in the kingdom of Westphalia, 250, 258; a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. _See_ William IX.

Hesse-Darmstadt, increased in size (1803), 227; made a Grand Duchy (1806), 259; a state of the Confederation of the Rhine (1806), 260; of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. _See_ Louis X.

Hesse-Homburg, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Hildesheim, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34.

Hildesheim, bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; in the kingdom of Westphalia (1807), 258.

Hiller, John, Baron von, Austrian general (1754–1819), 315.

Hoche, Lazare, French general (1768–97), 140, 154, 180, 181, 185, 186, 189, 191, 193, 194.

Hoensbroeck, Count Cæsar Constantine Francis de, Prince-Bishop of Liége, 39, 49, 95.

Hofer, Andrew, Tyrolese patriot (1767–1810), 273.

Hohenlinden, battle of (3 Dec. 1800), 219.

Hohenlohe-Bartenstein, Prince of, one of the chief Princes of the Empire in Alsace, 79.

Hohenlohe-Kirchberg, Prince of, Austrian general, 45.

Hohenzollern, two principalities of, states of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Holland [the United Netherlands], a member of the Triple Alliance, 13; position in 1789, 31; revolution in (1787) 31, 32; put down by Prussia, 32; designs of Dumouriez on, 119, 120; France declares war against (1793), 120; failure of Dumouriez to invade (1793), 126; conquered by Pichegru (1794–95), 149; organised as the Batavian Republic, 150; effect of its conquest on England, 184; Delacroix sent as ambassador to, 190; Hoche’s scheme of invading England from, 193; its fleet destroyed at Camperdown (1797), 194; invaded by English and Russians (1799), 205; its changes of government, 254; Louis Bonaparte, King of (1806), 254, 255; colonies taken by England, 264; annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282; rises against the French (1813–14), 314, 320, 321; joined to Belgium as the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815), 344.

—— kingdom of, formed for Louis Bonaparte, 254; his administration (1806–1810), 254, 255.

Holstein, duchy of, 34, 343.

Holstein-Gottorp, Prince Peter of, Prince-Bishop of Lübeck in 1789, 39.

Holy Alliance, the, 355.

Hondschoten, battle of (7 Sept. 1793), 140.

Hood, Samuel, Lord, English admiral (1724–1816), 139.

Houchard, Jean Nicolas, French general (1740–93), 138, 140.

Howe, Richard, Earl, English admiral (1725–99), 145.

Humbert, Jean Joseph Amable, French general (1755–1823), 197.

Humboldt, William, Baron von, Prussian statesman (1767–1835), 303, 304, 323; at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 338.

Hundred Days, the (March-June 1815), 351–353.

Hungary, opposition to the Emperor Joseph’s reforms in, 15, 16; abolition of serfdom, 16; Joseph’s dying concessions to, 66; policy of the Emperor Leopold in, 90–92; looked with favour on Napoleon, 270.

Huningen, fortress to be dismantled by second treaty of Paris (1815), 354.

Hutchinson, John, Lord, afterwards Earl of Donoughmore, English general (1757–1832), 224.

Igelström, Joseph, Count, Russian general (♰1817), 151, 152.

Illyrian Provinces, Napoleon’s, formed (1805), ruled by Marmont, 245, 256; the Ionian islands added to (1807), 256; increased (1809), 274; given to Austria (1815), 347.

Income tax imposed in France (1800), 215.

India, Bonaparte’s projects on (1798), 194; the Emperor Paul’s plans for invading, 220, 221.

‘Infernal Columns’ despatched to La Vendée, 141.

‘Infernal Machine,’ plot of the (1800), 231.

Inquisition, the Holy, 21, 22, 25, 297, 358.

Ionian Islands belonged to Venice in 1789, 27; ceded to France (1797), 192; taken by the Russians (1798), 207; ceded to France by the treaty of Tilsit (1807), 250; added to the Illyrian Provinces, 256; given to England (1815), 348.

Ireland, Hoche’s expedition to (1796), 185; Humbert’s (1798), 197.

Iron crown of Italy assumed by Napoleon (1805), 238.

Ismail, besieged by the Russians (1789), 45; stormed (1790), 96.

Istria ceded to Austria (1797), 192; annexed by Napoleon, 245.

—— Duke of. _See_ Bessières.

Italian unity, idea of, in the 18th century, 22; promised by Bentinck (1813), 322; defended by Murat (1814), 344.

Italy, condition of, in 1789, 22–27; Bonaparte’s arrangements in North, 192; conquered by the French (1798–99), 200; reconquered by Bonaparte (1800), 218, 219; kingdom of, Napoleon’s, 238, 255; rises against Napoleon (1813–14), 314, 315; settlement of, at Vienna (1815), 345–347. _See_ Genoa, Lombardy, Lucca, Modena, Naples, Parma, Rome, Sardinia, Sicily, Tuscany, Venice.

Jablonowski, Ladislas, Polish statesman (1769–1802), 87.

Jachvill, Prince, 221.

Jacobin Club, growth of its importance in France, 100, 105; debates on the war question in, 107; Hébertists expelled from (1793), 142; the headquarters of Robespierre’s party, 147; closed (1794), 149.

Jaffa taken by Bonaparte (1799), 208.

Jahn, Frederick Louis, German publicist (1778–1852), 291.

Janissaries, the, dethrone the Sultan Selim III. (1807), 280; fight the new militia in Constantinople, 281.

Janssens, John William, Dutch general (1762–1835), 155.

Jassy, treaty of (9 Jan. 1792), 96.

Jaucourt, Arnail François, Marquis de, French statesman (1757–1852), 330.

Java, taken by the English (1811), 264; restored to Holland (1815), 348.

Javogues, Claude, French politician (1759–96), 139.

Jeanbon or Jean Bon (André) called Saint-André. _See_ Saint-André.

Jehu, companies of, ravage the south of France in 1796, 181; in 1815, 356.

Jemmappes, battle of (6 Nov. 1792), 118.

Jena, university of, 38; battle of (14 Oct. 1806), 247.

Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia (1784–1860), 258, 259.

Jervis, Sir John, Earl St. Vincent, English admiral (1734–1823), 183.

Jesuits expelled from Spain by Aranda, 21; from Portugal by Pombal, 22; from Naples by Tanucci, 23.

Jeunesse Dorée or Fréronienne, important political part played by, in Paris (1794–95), 155.

Jews, toleration to, insisted on by Napoleon, 289.

John VI., King of Portugal (1769–1826), 22, 120, 223, 252, 253.

—— Archduke, seventh son of the Emperor Leopold (1782–1863), 219, 272, 273, 274.

Jomini, Henri, Baron, French general (1779–1862), 312.

Joseph II., Emperor (1741–90), typical benevolent despot of the 18th century, 4; preferred Russia to France, 12; position in 1789, 14–17; internal policy, 15, 16; abolition of serfdom, 16; foreign policy, 16, 17; German policy, 17, 35; alliance with Russia, 17; attacks the Turks, 17; the Pope’s visit to, 24; defeated by the Turks (1788), 43; prophecy in Jan. 1789, 44; policy in Belgium, 46–48; death and character, 66; why he failed, 67; comparison between, and Louis XVI., 67, 68.

Joseph Bonaparte, elder brother of Napoleon (1768–1844), King of Naples (1806), his good administration, 256; King of Spain (1808), 267; his reforms, 289, 297; driven from Madrid (1812), 306; returned, 307; finally retired from Madrid, defeated at Vittoria (1813), 315.

Joseph, Archduke, fourth son of the Emperor Leopold (1776–1847), 270.

Josephine, the Empress, first wife of Napoleon (1763–1814), 285, 293, 332.

Joubert, Barthélemy Catherine, French general (1769–99), 186, 200, 204.

Jourdan, Jean Baptiste, Comte, French general (1762–1833), 140, 144, 150, 172, 177, 178, 202, 315, App. iv.

Journalists, rise of their importance in Paris (1789), 61.

Jovellanos, Don Gaspar Melchior de, Spanish statesman (1744–1811), 21.

Joyeuse Entrée or Constitution of Brabant, abrogated by the Emperor Joseph (1789), 47.

Junot, Andoche, Duke of Abrantes, French general (1771–1813), 253, 265, 266, 296.

Kaiserslautern, battle of (19 Aug. 1794), 144.

Kalisch, ceded to Prussia in second partition of Poland (1793), 122; treaty of (27 Feb. 1813), 308.

Kalkreuth, Frederick Adolphus, Count von, Prussian general (1737–1818), 153.

Kant, Immanuel, German philosopher (1724–1804), 9.

Katt, Lieutenant, Prussian officer, attacked Magdeburg (1809), 293.

Katzbach, battle of the (25 Aug. 1813), 312.

Kaunitz, Wenceslas, Prince von, Austrian statesman (1711–94), made the treaty of 1756 with France, 19; at the Congress of Reichenbach (1790), 87; wrote the despatch and letter which led to war with France, 108, 109; practically succeeded by Thugut (1792), 126.

Keller, Dorotheus Louis Christopher, Count, Prussian statesman (1757–1827), 65, 93.

Kellermann, François Christophe, Duke of Valmy, French general (1735–1820), 115, App. iv.

—— François Étienne, French general (1770–1835), 218.

Kempten, Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34.

Kiel, treaty of (14 Jan. 1814), 320.

Kioge, Danes defeated at, by the English (1807), 252.

Klagenfurt, Joubert joins Bonaparte at (1797), 186.

Kléber, Jean Baptiste, French general (1753–1800), 150, 172, 208, 224.

Knesebeck, Charles Frederick, Baron von, Prussian general (1768–1844), 33.

Knights of the Holy Roman Empire, 40; deprived of their sovereign rights by Napoleon, 260.

Kolichev, Nicholas, Russian diplomatist (♰1813), 198, 217.

Kollontai, Hugh, Polish statesman (1752–1812), 104, 122.

Königsberg, Estates of East Prussia summoned at, by Stein (1813), 308.

Körner, Charles Theodore, German poet (1791–1813), 291.

Korsakov, Alexander Rymski, Russian general (1753–1840), 204.

Kosciuszko, Thaddeus, Polish patriot (1746–1817), defeated by Suvórov at Dubienka (1792), 122; raises standard of Polish independence at Cracow, and takes Warsaw (1794), 151; defeated by the Russians, wounded and taken prisoner at Maciejowice (1795), 152; welcomed in Paris, 206.

Kray, Paul, Baron, Austrian general (1735–1804), 202.

Kulm, capitulation of (1813), 313.

Kutuzov, Michael Larivonovitch Golenitchev, Prince, Russian general (1745–1813), 96, 281, 305; death (1813), 309.

Labrador, Pedro Gomez Ravelo, Count of, Spanish statesman (1775–1850), 338, 347.

Lacuée de Cessac, Gérard Jean, Comte, French administrator (1752–1841), 241.

Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert Motier, Marquis de, French general (1757–1834), leads the minority of the nobility in the States-General to join the Tiers État (June 1789), 54; commandant of the National Guard of Paris, 59; brings Louis XVI. to Paris (6 Oct. 1789), 62; got Mirabeau’s proposition on ministers rejected, 72; most influential man in France (1790), 73; fires on the people (17 July 1791), on the Champ de Mars, 101; placed in command of an army on the frontier (1792), 107; offers to help the king (July 1792), 112; deserts, 114.

Lagarde, Marie Jacques Martin, French general (♰1815), 356.

La Harpe, Frederick Cæsar de, Swiss statesman (1754–1838), 234.

La Marck, Auguste Marie Raymond, Comte de (1753–1833), 72, 73.

Lambesc, Charles Eugène de Lorraine, Prince de, French officer (1751–1825), 57.

Lambrechts, Charles Joseph Mathieu, Comte, French politician (1753–1823), 191.

Lameth, Alexandre Theodore Victor, Vicomte de, French politician (1760–1829), 100.

Lampredi, Giovanni Maria, Italian jurist (1732–93), 24.

Landau, siege of, relieved by Pichegru (1793), 140.

Lanjunais, Jean Denis, Comte, French politician (1753–1827), 154.

Lannes, Jean, Duke of Montebello, French general (1769–1809), 218, 269, App. iv.

Laon, battle of (9 March 1814), 328.

La Place, Pierre Simon, French astronomer (1749–1827), 216.

La Tour du Pin Gouvernet, Frédéric, Marquis de, French diplomatist (1750–1837), 338.

Lauenburg, Duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation, granted to the King of Denmark (1815), 347.

League of the Princes, formed by Frederick the Great, 30, 35; joined by the Archbishop-Elector of Mayence, 39.

La Bon, Ghislain Joseph François, French politician (1765–95), 139.

Le Brun, Charles François, Duke of Piacenza, French statesman (1739–1824), 214, 239, 287.

Lebrun Tondu, Pierre Henri Hélène, French politician (1763–93), 114.

Le Chapelier, Isaac Gui René, French politician (1754–94), 52, 100.

Leclerc, Victor Emmanuel, French general (1772–1802), 223, 232.

Lecourbe, Claude Joseph, Comte, French general (1760–1815), 204.

Leeds, Francis Godolphin Osborne, Duke of, English statesman (1751–99), 28.

Lefebvre, François Joseph, Duke of Dantzic, French general (1755–1820), 248, 329, App. iv.

Legations, the. _See_ Bologna, Ferrara.

Leghorn, its prosperity promoted by the Grand Duke Leopold, 27; capital of a French department, 283.

Legion of Honour, the, 284.

Legislative Assembly, the, in France (1791–92), 105, 106, 108, 111, 113, 114.

—— Body, the (Corps Législatif), 214, 240, 285, 322, 326.

Legislature, the French, under the Constitution of the Year III. _See_ Council of Ancients, Council of Five Hundred.

—— the French, under the Constitution of the Year VIII. _See_ Legislative Body, Senate, Tribunate.

Leiningen, the Prince of, one of chief princes holding fiefs of the Empire in Alsace, 79.

Leipzig, battle of (16–19 Oct. 1813), 314.

Lenoir-Laroche, Jean Jacques, French administrator (1749–1825), 190.

Leoben, the Preliminaries of, signed 17th April 1797, 186; arrangements of, followed in the treaty of Campo-Formio, 192.

Leopold II., Emperor (1747–92), typical benevolent despot of the 18th century, 4; considered the French the enemies of Austria, 12; his administration as Grand Duke of Tuscany (1765–90), 24, 25, 83; implored by Marie Antoinette to interfere in France, 81; succeeds Joseph II. (1790), 83; his internal policy, 83, 84; position of Austria, 84; appeals to England against Prussia, 86; signs Convention of Reichenbach (1790), 87, 88; makes armistice with the Turks, 88; and treaty of Sistova (1791), 89; elected and crowned Emperor, 89; letter to Louis XVI. on the rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace, 89, 90; his policy towards Hungary, 90–92; crowned King of Hungary, 91; reconquers Belgium (1790), 94; occupies Liége, 95; his position in 1791, 97; promises to intervene in France, 99; issues Manifesto of Padua, 102; signs Declaration of Pilnitz, 103; his letter and despatch to Louis XVI., 108, 109; makes an alliance with Prussia against France, 109; death (1 March 1792), 110.

Leopold, Archduke, fourth son of the Emperor Leopold (1774–94), 91.

Le Quesnoy, besieged by the Austrians (1793), 130.

Lessart, Antoine de Valdec de, French statesman (1742–92), 109.

Letourneur, Charles Louis François Honoré, French statesman (1751–1817), 165, 182, 188.

Letourneux, Pierre, French administrator (1761–1805), 191.

‘Liberum Veto,’ the, in Poland, 18; abolished by Polish Constitution of 1791, 104.

Lichtenstein, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Liége, revolution in (Aug. 1789), 49; occupied by the Prussians (1790), 63; by the Austrians (1791), 94, 95; by Dumouriez (1792), 118.

Ligne, Charles Joseph, Prince de, Austrian general (1734–1814), 65.

Ligny, battle of (16 June 1815), 352.

Ligurian Republic founded by Bonaparte (1797), 192; the Doge appointed by France (1801), 220; annexed to Napoleon’s Empire, 243, 283.

Lille, besieged by the Austrians (1792), 114, 118; conference at (1797), 190.

Limburg, occupied by the Austrians under Bender (1790), 93.

—— Count Augustus of, Prince-Bishop of Spires in 1789, 39.

Limon, Geoffroi, Marquis de, French _émigrés_ (♰1799), 113.

Lindet, Jean Baptiste Robert, French statesman (1743–1825), 132, 133, 148, 210.

Lippe, two principalities of, states of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Lisbon, occupied by the French under Junot (1807), 253.

Lithuania, conquered by Napoleon (1812), 305; absorbed in Russia, 342.

Llanos, Don Juan Gomez, minister of the Duke of Parma, 25.

Loano, battle of (24 Nov. 1795), 151, 173.

Lobau, Napoleon in the island of (1809), 273.

Locke, John, English philosopher (1632–1704), 9.

Lodi, battle of (10 May 1796), 174.

Lombardy, belonged to Austria in 1789, its good administration, 26; conquered by Bonaparte (1796), 174; formed part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192; occupied by the Austrians (1799), 206; reconquered by Bonaparte (1800), 218; formed part of the kingdom of Italy (1805), 255; restored to Austria (1815), 347.

Loménie de Brienne, Étienne Charles, Cardinal de, French statesman (1727–1794), 49, 51, 70.

Longwy, taken by the Prussians (27 Aug. 1792), 114.

Loudon, Gideon Ernest, Count, Austrian general (1716–90), 43, 45, 88.

Louis XV., King of France (1710–1774), 19.

—— XVI., King of France (1754–93), 20, 49, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62, 67, 68, 75, 76, 99, 100, 103, 106, 108, 111, 112, 113, 139.

—— XVII., _de jure_ King of France (1785–95), 168.

—— XVIII., King of France (1755–1824), 26, 102, 166, 167, 188, 206, 217, 332, 333, 340, 341, 350, 351, 352, 353, 355, 356–358.

—— I., King of Etruria (1773–1803), 220, 232.

—— Bonaparte, King of Holland (1777–1846), 254, 255, 282, 283.

—— X., Landgrave, afterwards Grand Duke, of Hesse-Darmstadt (1753–1830), 79, 227, 259, 260, 342.

—— Philippe, Duke of Orleans, afterwards King of the French (1773–1850), 189.

—— Louis Dominique, Baron, French statesman (1755–1837), 240, 331.

Louisa, Queen of Prussia (1776–1810), 246, 304.

Louisiana, ceded by Spain to France (1801), 232; sold by Napoleon to the United States, 242.

Loustalot, Elysée, French journalist (1762–90), 61.

Louvain, 15, 48, 64.

Louverture, Toussaint (1743–1803), 232.

Louvet, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1760–97), 117, 154.

Löwenhielm, Gustavus Charles Frederick, Count von, Swedish diplomatist (1771–1856), 338.

Lübeck, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; retained its independence (1803), 226; annexed by Napoleon (1810), 302; as a free city member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Lucca, Republic of, in 1789, 27; annexed by Napoleon (1805), 243, 255; Elisa Bonaparte, Duchess of, 283; made a Grand Duchy for the King of Etruria with reversion to Tuscany (1815), 347.

Lucchesini, Jerome, Prussian diplomatist (1752–1825), 31, 85, 87, 88, 89, 153.

Lucerne, canton of Switzerland maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228; one of the three meeting-places of the Helvetian Diet (1815), 345.

Lückner, Nicolas, Baron, French general (1722–94), 107.

Ludovica, the Empress, third wife of the Emperor Francis II. (1772–1816), 271.

Lunéville, treaty of (9 Feb. 1801), 219, 220.

Lusatia, annexed to Saxony (1806), 259; to Prussia (1815), 341.

Lützen (Gross-Gorschen), battle of (2 May 1813), 309.

Luxembourg, the Austrians retreat to, from Belgium (1789), 64; made into a Grand Duchy (1815), 343; and given to the King of the Netherlands, 344.

Lynedoch, Sir Thomas Graham, Lord. _See_ Graham.

Lyons rises in insurrection against the Convention (1793), 131; taken, 140.

Macdonald, Jacques Étienne Joseph Alexandre, Duke of Taranto, French general (1765–1840), 203, 219, 273, 305, 306, 308, 312, 329, 331, 332.

Maciejowice, battle of (12 Oct. 1794), 152.

Mack, Charles, Baron, Austrian general (1752–1828), 200, 243, 244.

Mackintosh, Sir James, English statesman (1765–1832), 233.

Madame Royale. _See_ Angoulême, Duchess of.

Madeira, occupied by the English (1801), 223, 224.

Maestricht, besieged by Miranda (1793), 126; taken by Kléber (1794), 150.

Magdeburg formed part of the kingdom of Westphalia, 258; Katt’s attack on, 293; French garrison in, besieged (1814), 319.

Magnano, battle of (5 April 1799), 202.

Mahmoud II., Sultan of Turkey (1785–1839), 281.

Maida, battle of (4 July 1806), 256.

Maillard, Stanislas, French politician (1763–94), 62.

Maillebois, Yves Marie Desmarets, Comte de, French general (1715–1791), 31, 32.

Maitland, Sir Frederick Lewis, English captain (1779–1839), 353.

Malet, Claude François, French general (1754–1812), 306.

Malines, riots against Joseph’s reforms at (1788), 47; abandoned to the Belgian patriots, 64.

Malmaison, château of, settled on the Empress Josephine, 293.

Malmesbury, Sir James Harris, Earl of, English diplomatist (1746–1820), 32, 184, 190.

Malta, taken by Bonaparte (1798), 195; by the English (1800), 195, 204; the Emperor Paul Grand Master of the Knights of, 207, 217; a cause of the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, 225; England refuses to surrender, 233; granted to England at the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348.

Mamelukes defeated by Bonaparte at the battle of the Pyramids (1798), 195; at the battle of Cairo (1799), 208.

Manifesto of Padua issued by the Emperor Leopold (5 July 1791), 102.

Mannheim, university of, 37; taken by Pichegru (1795), 172; given to Baden (1803), 227.

Mantua, Leopold’s interview with Durfort at, 99; besieged by Bonaparte (1796–97), 175, 176; part of the Cisalpine Republic, 192; besieged by Suvórov (1799), 203.

Marat, Jean Paul, French statesman (1744–93), 61, 101, 107, 117, 155.

Marceau, François Séverin Desgraviers, French general (1769–96), 172; killed at Altenkirchen (1796), 178.

Marengo, battle of (14 June 1800), 218.

Maret, Hugues Bernard, Duke of Bassano, French statesman (1763–1839), 241, 316.

Maria I., Queen of Portugal (1734–1816), 22, 253.

—— Beatrice of Este, heiress of Modena, married to the Archduke Ferdinand, 25, 26.

—— Theresa, the Empress (1717–80), 19.

Marie, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, sister of the Emperor Alexander, present at the Congress of Vienna, 337.

—— Amélie, Duchess of Parma, daughter of Maria Theresa, 25.

—— Antoinette, Queen of France, daughter of Maria Theresa (1755–93), disliked in France as an Austrian, 12; opposes Necker, 55; urges Louis XVI. to oppose the Assembly, 61, 68; wishes her brother Leopold to interfere in France, 75, 80, 81; unpopularity increased by Prussian intrigues, 86; admiration of Gustavus III. of Sweden for, 95; demands Leopold’s aid, 99; escapes to Varennes, 99, 100; reveals French plan of campaign to Austria, 112; ordered to be sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal for trial, 134; guillotined, 138.

—— Caroline, Queen of the Two Sicilies, daughter of Maria Theresa. _See_ Caroline.

—— Louise, the Empress, Napoleon’s second wife (1791–1847), 294, 330, 332, 346, 347.

—— —— Queen of Spain (1754–1819), 77, 267.

Marmont, Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de, Duke of Ragusa, French general (1774–1852), 245, 256, 306, 329, 331, App. iv.

Marseillaise, the, 113.

Marseilles opposes the Convention (1793), 151.

Marshals, Napoleon’s, 239; list of, App. iv.

Martinique, French West India island, taken by the English, 154; restored to France (1802), 252; again taken by the English (1809), 276; restored to France (1815), 348.

Massa, Duke of. _See_ Regnier.

—— Principality of, merged in the Duchy of Modena, 25.

Massacres in the prisons of Paris (Sept. 1792), 115.

Masséna, André, Duke of Rivoli, Prince of Essling, French general (1758–1817), 204, 218, 221, 244, 272, 296, 297, App. iv.

Matchin, battle of (9 July 1791), 96.

Maubeuge besieged by the Austrians (1793), 140.

Mauprat, M. de, reforming minister in Parma, 25.

Mauritius, the island of the, taken by the English (1809), 264, 276; ceded to England by the first Treaty of Paris (1814), 333; by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348.

Maximilian, Archduke, third son of Maria Theresa, Elector-Archbishop of Cologne in 1789, 40.

—— Joseph, Elector, afterwards King, of Bavaria (1770–1825), his power increased by the secularisations (1803), 227; receives Swabia and the Tyrol and takes the title of king (1806), 245; receives Salzburg (1809), 257; marries a daughter to Eugène de Beauharnais, 258; member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; sends troops to serve under Napoleon at Wagram, 274; signs Treaty of Ried against Napoleon (8 Oct. 1813), 313, 314; attacks Napoleon and is defeated at Hanau, 314; opens the passes through the Tyrol into Italy to the Austrians, 321; agrees to support Austria and England against Russia and Prussia (1815), 341; member of the Germanic Confederation, 342; gives up the Tyrol and Salzburg to Austria, and receives Rhenish Bavaria (1815), 344.

Maximum, Law of the, in France, 128; an instrument of the Terror, 137; abolished by the Thermidorians, 149; temporarily imposed by Napoleon, 285.

Mayence, the Archbishop-Elector of, Chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, and President of the College of Prince, 54.

—— archbishopric-electorate of, condition in 1789, 39; merged in France (1801), 193; given to Bavaria (1815), 344.

—— city of, taken by the French under Custine (1792), 118; by the Prussians after a long siege (1793), 130; besieged by Kléber in vain (1795), 172; taken by the French under Hatry (1797), 193; capital of a French department, 230; ceded to Bavaria (1815), 344.

Mecklenburg, the duchies of, their backward state in 1789, 38; made grand duchies and members of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342.

Medellin, battle of (28 March 1809), 275.

Medina del Rio Seco, battle of (14 July 1808), 267.

Melas, Michael Baron von, Austrian general (1730–1806), 175, 204, 218.

Menou, Jacques François, Baron de, French general (1750–1810), 156, 224.

Mercy-Argenteau, Florimond Claude, Comte de, Austrian diplomatist (1722–94), 93, 94, 99.

Merlin [de Douai], Philippe Antoine, Comte, French statesman (1754–1838), 80, 137, 148, 149, 156, 159, 166, 182, 191, 209, 357.

—— [de Thionville], Antoine Christophe, French politician (1762–1833), 117.

Methuen Treaty, its effect on Portugal, 14, 21, 252.

Metternich, Clement Wenceslas Lothaire, Count, afterwards Prince, von, Austrian statesman (1773–1859), becomes State Chancellor of Austria (1809), 275; opposes Stein’s idea of rousing the national spirit of Germany against Napoleon, 310, 311; brings terms agreed on at Reichenbach to Napoleon at Dresden (1813), 311; lays down the Proposals of Frankfort, 316; intrigues with Murat, 322; presses terms offered at Châtillon, 324; becomes intimate with Castlereagh, 331; signs Provisional Treaty of Paris, 332; Austrian representative at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 338; signs treaty of alliance with England and France against Russia and Prussia (3 Jan. 1815), 340.

Middle classes in Europe in the 18th century, 7.

Milan, university of, 26; taken by Bonaparte (1796), 174; meeting of Lombard delegates at, 175; taken by Suvórov (1799), 203; by Bonaparte (1800), 218; Napoleon crowned King of Italy at (1805), 238; issues Decree of, establishing the Continental Blockade against England (1808), 251.

Milanese, the. _See_ Lombardy.

Miles, William Augustus, English diplomatist (1754–1817), 78.

Millesimo, battle of (13 April 1796), 174.

Mincio, battle of the (8 Feb. 1814), 322.

Ministers of the French Directory, 166, 182, 190, 191, 210; of the Consulate, 216; of the Empire, 240, 241.

Minorca taken by the English (1798), 195, 264.

Minsk, province of, ceded to Russia at the second partition of Poland (1793), 122.

Miollis, Sextius Alexandre François, Comte, French general (1759–1829), 277.

Miot de Melito, André François, Comte, French administrator (1762–1841), 256.

Mirabeau, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de, French statesman (1749–1791), 54, 56, 60, 61, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 98, 99.

Mirabeau, Victor Riqueti, Marquis de, French economist (1715–89), 25.

Miranda, Don Francisco, French general (1750–1816), 126, 127.

Mirandola, principality of, united with Modena in 1789, 25.

Mittau, Louis XVIII. settled at, by the Emperor Paul (1797), 206; ordered to leave (1802), 217.

Modena, duchy of, condition in 1789, 25, 26; conquered by Bonaparte (1796), 174; part of the Cisalpine Republic, 192; of the kingdom of Italy, 255; granted to Ferdinand IV., 347.

Moeskirch, battle of (5 May 1800), 218.

Moldavia, conquered by the Austrians (1789), 45; by the Russians (1810), 281; part of, ceded to Russia (1812), 281.

Möllendorf, Richard Joachim Heinrich, Count von, Prussian general (1725–1816), 153.

Moncey, Bon Adrien Jeannot de, Duke of Conegliano, French general (1754–1842), 151, 275, 356, App. iv.

Mondovi, battle of (22 April 1796), 174.

Monge, Gaspard, Comte, French mathematician (1746–1818), 114.

Montbéliard, ceded by Würtermburg to France, 227; merged in the department of the Doubs, 230; secured to France by the first treaty of Paris, 333.

Mont-Blanc, Savoy organised as the French department of the, 230.

—— Cenis, 151.

Montebello, battle of (4 June 1800), 218.

—— Duke of. _See_ Lannes.

Montenotte, battle of (12 April 1796), 174.

Montereau, battle of (18 Feb. 1814), 319.

Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de, French philosopher (1689–1755), 9.

Montesquiou-Fézensac, Anne Pierre, Marquis de, French general (1739–98), 117.

—— —— François Nicolas, Abbé-Duc de, French politician (1757–1832), 330.

Monte Video, English expedition to (1806), 264.

Montgelas, Maximilian Joseph Garnerin, Comte de, Bavarian statesman (1759–1838), 289.

Montluçon, Bonaparte’s treaty with the Vendéan leaders at (1800), 215.

Montmirail, battle of (11 Feb. 1814), 319.

Montmorin-Saint-Hérem, Armand Marc, Comte de, French statesman (1745–92), 78.

Mont-Terrible, department of, merged in the department of the Haut-Rhin, 230.

Moore, Sir John, English general (1761–1809), 254, 266, 269, 270.

Moreau, Jean Victor, French general (1761–1813), 168, 178, 186, 193, 194, 203, 211, 218, 219, 234, 235, 312.

Moreaux, Jean René, French general (1758–95), 144, 150.

Morkov, Arcadius Ivanovitch, Count, Russian diplomatist, (♰1827), 243.

Mortier, Adolphe Edouard Casimir Joseph, Duke of Treviso, French general (1768–1835), 233, 329, App. iv.

Moscow, occupied by Napoleon (1812), 306.

Moskowa, Prince of the. _See_ Ney.

Moulin, Jean François Auguste, French general (1752–1810), 209.

Mounier, Jean Joseph, French statesman (1758–1806), 51, 55.

Mountain, the French political party, germs in the Jacobin Club (1792), 107; the party in the Convention, 116, 117; attacked by the Girondins, 117; struggle with the Girondins, 128, 129; as a party ceases to exist (1795), 156.

Mount Tabor, battle of (16 April 1799), 208.

Mulhouse, Republic of, merged in the Haut-Rhin, 230; secured to France (1814), 333.

Müller, Jacques Léonard, Baron, French general (1749–1824), 140.

—— Johann von, German historian (1752–1809), 259.

Munich, taken by the French under Moreau (1800), 219.

Münster, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34.

—— bishopric of, part of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; in the Grand Duchy of Berg (1806), 259; part of, annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282.

—— city of, capital of a French department, 282.

—— Ernest Frederick, Count von, Hanoverian diplomatist (1766–1841), 337.

Murat, Joachim, Grand Duke of Berg, King of Naples, French general (1771–1815), 239, 259, 267, 283, 306, 322, 345, 346, App. iv.

Murbach, the Abbot of, one of the chief Princes of the Empire in Alsace, 79.

Murray, Sir John, English general (♰1827), 307.

Musæus, John Charles Augustus, German author (1735–87), 38.

Mustapha IV., Sultan of Turkey (1779–1808), 280, 281.

Mysticism in the 18th century, 10.

Namur, riots against Joseph’s reforms at (1789), 48.

Nancy, Bouillé suppresses a military mutiny at (Aug. 1790), 72, 97, 98.

Nangis, battle of (17 Feb. 1814), 319.

Nantes, Carrier’s atrocities at (1793), 139, 141.

Naples, reforms of Tanucci in, 23; occupied by the French (1798), and the Parthenopean Republic founded, 200; evacuated by the French (1799), and the revenge of Ferdinand, 203; attacked by Napoleon (1804), 242; Joseph Bonaparte’s rule in, 256; Murat king of, 283; Ferdinand returns to (1814), 346, 359; behaves moderately, 359.

Napoleon (1769–1821), crowned Emperor, 238; his Court, 239; his ministers, 240, 241; the camp at Boulogne, 241; organises the Grand Army, 241, 242; wins the battle of Austerlitz, 244; crushes Prussia at Jena, 247; defeats the Russians at Eylau and Friedland, 248, 249; holds interview with Alexander at Tilsit, 249, 250; the Continental Blockade against England, 251; his rearrangement of Europe, 254–257; Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; his Polish policy, 261; the Conference at Erfurt, 262; makes his brother King of Spain, 267; takes Madrid, 269; defeats the Austrians (1809), 272–274; quarrel with the Pope, 277, 278; greatest extension of his Empire (1810), 282, 283; his administration, 283–285; belief in heredity, 285, 286; aristocracy, 286, 287; reforms, 287, 288; divorces Josephine, 293; marries Marie Louise, 294; his differences with Alexander, 299–301; invades Russia (1812), 305; his retreat, 306; first campaign of 1813 in Saxony, 309; refuses the terms offered him by the allies, 311; second campaign of 1813 in Saxony, 312, 313; defeated at Leipzig, 314; first defensive campaign of 1814 in France, 319; rejects the terms offered by the allies at Châtillon, 323, 324; second defensive campaign of 1814 in France, 328, 329; abdicates, 331; leaves Elba and returns to France (1815), 351; defeated at Waterloo, 353; sent to St. Helena, 355. _See_ Bonaparte.

Napoleon, King of Rome, birth of, 294; granted succession to Parma by the Provisional Treaty of Paris (1814), 332; but not by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347.

Narbonne-Lara, Comte Louis de, French politician (1755–1813), 106, 107, 109.

Nassau, duchy of, increased in 1803, 227; merged in the Grand Duchy of Berg (1806), 259; a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342.

Nassau-Siegen, Prince Charles Henry Nicholas Otho of, Russian admiral (1745–1809), 44, 95.

National Assembly. _See_ Constituent Assembly.

—— Guards formed in Paris, 57; throughout France, 59.

Nationality, the principle of, 2, 3; extinct in 18th-century Germany, 40; made the French successful and the Poles fail, 153; roused against Napoleon in Spain, 298; in Germany, 293, 314; rejected by the Congress of Vienna, 360.

Natural limits of France, the Rhine and the Alps, claimed at Basle (1795), 157; demanded by the Directory, 170; recognised secretly by Prussia, 179; by the Preliminaries of Leoben, 186; by the Treaty of Campo-Formio, 192; by the Treaty of Lunéville, 220; abandoned by Napoleon’s annexations, 282; offered by the allies at Dresden, 311; at Frankfort, 316; opposed by Castlereagh, 318, 324.

Necker, Jacques, French statesman (1732–1804), 49, 51, 56, 58, 61, 74.

Neipperg, Albert Adam, Count (1774–1829), 346, 347.

Nelson, Horatio, Viscount, English admiral (1758–1805), 183, 195, 222, 242, 244, 245.

Nesselrode, Charles Robert, Count, Russian statesman (1780–1863), 301, 332, 337.

Netherlands, Austrian. _See_ Belgium.

—— The Protestant, or the United Provinces. _See_ Holland.

—— Kingdom of the, formed (1815), 344.

Neufchâtel, belonged to Prussia in 1789, 41; Berthier created Prince-Duke of, 283, 286; made a Canton of Switzerland (1815), 345.

Neumarkt, battle of (20 March 1797), 186.

Neutral League of the North, the, 222.

Ney, Michel, Duke of Elchingen, Prince of the Moskowa, French general (1769–1815), 244, 296, 306, 313, 329, 332, 351, 352, 356, App. iv.

Nice, port of, improved by Victor Amadeus III., 26; taken by the French (1792), 117; annexed, 118; formally ceded to France, 174; formed into a department, 230; restored to Sardinia (1814), 333.

Niebuhr, Barthold George, German historian (1776–1831), 304.

Nile, battle of the (1 Aug. 1798), 195.

Nimeguen, 149.

Nive, battle of the (9–13 Dec. 1813), 316.

Nivelle, battle of the (10 Nov. 1813), 316.

Noailles, Comte Alexis de, French diplomatist (1783–1835), 338.

Nobility, the European, in the 18th century, 7.

Nootka Sound, 77–9.

Nore, mutiny at the, 183, 193.

Normal School of Paris, founded by Napoleon, 288.

Normandy, the rising in, against the Convention, suppressed, 132, 133.

Norway, 32, 302, 320, 347.

Novi (Bosnia) taken by Loudon (1788), 43.

—— (Italy), battle of (15 Aug. 1799), 204.

Noyades at Nantes, 139.

Nuremberg, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; retained its independence (1803), 226; granted to Bavaria (1806), 257.

Oath of the Tennis Court (20 June 1789), 54.

Ocana, battle of (12 Nov. 1809), 276.

Ochakov (Oczakoff), 43, 44, 96.

Oldenburg, duchy of (1815), 282, 300, 342.

Olivenza ceded by Portugal to Spain (1801), 223; left to Spain by the Congress of Vienna, 348.

Oporto, rising against the French at (1808), 265; taken by Soult, 270; recaptured by Wellesley (1809), 275.

Orange, Prince of. _See_ William V., William VI.

Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of (1747–93), 57, 138.

Orsova besieged by the Austrians (1789), 45; taken by the Prince of Coburg (1789), 88; ceded to Austria (1791), 88.

Ortenau given to Baden (1807), 258.

Orthez, battle of (27 Feb. 1814), 321.

Osnabrück, the Duke of York bishop of, in 1789, 39; merged in Hanover (1803), 227; annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282.

Ostend taken by the Belgian patriots (1789), 64.

Otranto, Duke of. _See_ Fouché.

Oudinot, Nicolas Charles, Duke of Reggio, French general (1767–1847), 312, 329, App. iv.

Paciaudi, Paolo Maria, Italian scholar (1710–85), 25.

Pacte de Famille, the, between France and Spain, 14, 20, 77–79.

Pacy, the Norman insurgents against the Convention defeated at (13 July 1793), 131.

Paderborn, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34.

—— bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; in the kingdom of Westphalia (1807), 258.

Padua, Manifesto of, 102.

Pahlen, Peter, Count von der, Russian general (♰1826), 221.

Palestine, conquered by Bonaparte (1799), 208.

Palm, John Philip, German bookseller (♰1806), 293.

Palmella, Pedro de Sousa-Holstein, Count, afterwards Duke, of, Portuguese statesman (1786–1850), 338.

Pampeluna besieged and taken by Wellington (1813), 315, 316.

Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot (1726–1807), 27, 145.

Papacy, the, its temporal power in the 18th century, 24.

Paris, takes part in the Revolution, 56; riot of 12 July (1789), 57; the taking of the Bastille, 57, 58; the King brought to (6 Oct. 1789), 62; keeps the King prisoner in the Tuileries, 99; massacre of 17 July (1791), 101; invades the Tuileries (20 June 1792), 112; takes the Tuileries (10 Aug. 1792), 113; massacres in (Sept. 1792), 115; people of, refuse to support Robespierre, 147; fights against the Convention, 13 Vendémiaire, 164, 165; welcomes the Empire, 238; battle of (1814), 239; occupied by the allies, 239; provisional treaty of, 331, 332; return of Louis XVIII. to, 333; first treaty of, 333, 334; return of Napoleon to (1815), 351; reoccupied by the allies, 353; second treaty of, 353, 354.

Parker, Sir Hyde, English admiral (1739–1807), 222.

Parma, city of, capital of a French department, 283.

—— Duke of. _See_ Cambacérès.

—— and Piacenza, Duchess of. _See_ Marie Louise.

—— ——, Duke of. _See_ Ferdinand, Louis.

—— ——, duchies of, well governed in the 18th century, 25; conquered by Bonaparte (1796), 174; exchanged for kingdom of Etruria (1801), 220; annexed by Napoleon (1810), 283; granted to Marie Louise by the Provisional Treaty of Paris (1814), 332; by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347.

Parthenopean Republic, founded (1798), 200; overthrown (1799), 203.

Passau, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1801), 227.

Paul, Emperor, of Russia (1754–1801), his accession (1796), 185; inclines to war with France, 198; declares war against France (1798), 202; receives Louis XVIII., 204; withdraws his troops from the Continent, 206; becomes Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, 207; quarrels with Austria and England, 207; makes peace with France, 207; admiration for Bonaparte, 216, 217; schemes for an invasion of India, 220, 221; forms Neutral League of the North, 221, 222; assassinated, 222.

Pavia, the university of, 26.

Peace, Prince of the. _See_ Godoy.

Peltier, Jean Gabriel, French journalist (1765–1825), 133.

Peninsular War: campaign of 1808, 265, 266; of 1809, 275, 276; of 1810, 296; of 1811, 296, 297; of 1812, 306, 307; of 1813, 315.

_Père Duchesne_, 142.

Pérignon, Dominique Catherine, Comte, French general (1754–1818), 183, App. iv.

Pesth, 90, 91.

Pétiet, Claude, French administrator (1749–1805), 182, 190.

Pétion, Jérome, French politician (1753–94), 78, 86.

Pfaffenhofen, treaty of (1796), 180.

Philosophers, the eighteenth century, 4, 9, 17, 38.

Piacenza, Duchy of. _See_ Parma.

—— Duke of. _See_ Le Brun.

Pichegru, Charles, French general (1761–1804), 140, 144, 149, 167, 172, 188, 191, 234, 235.

Piedmont, part of the kingdom of Sardinia in 1789, 26; left to Victor Amadeus (1797), 192; occupied by the French under Joubert (1798), 200; occupied by the Austrians (1799), 206; conquered by Bonaparte (1800), 218; annexed to France (1801), 220, 230, 255.

Pigot, Sir Henry, English general (1752–1840), 195.

Pilnitz, Conference between the Emperor Leopold and King Frederick William at (1791), 102; the Declaration of, 103; its effect on France, 106.

Pisa, the university of, 24, 200.

Pitt, William, English statesman (1759–1806), 28, 45, 78, 86, 97, 120, 125, 126, 166, 167, 169, 184, 189, 190, 225, 243, 245, 264.

Pius VI., Giovanni Angelo Braschi, Pope (1717–99), 24, 66, 76, 175, 177, 200, 203, 217.

—— VII., Gregorio Barnabé Luigi Chiaramonti, Pope (1742–1834), 217, 220, 229, 230, 238, 277, 278, 347.

Plain, deputies of the Centre in the Convention called the, 117, 129, 156.

Pleswitz, armistice of (3 June 1813), 309.

Plettenberg, the Baron of, Prince-Bishop of Münster in 1789, 39.

Pléville de Peley, Georges René, French admiral (1726–1805), 190, 196.

Podolia, province of, taken by Russia at the second partition of Poland (1793), 122.

Poland, its extinction impending in 1789, 14; Catherine’s policy in the first partition of, 18; Prussia’s share of, and aims on, 30; treaty of Warsaw with Prussia, 85; refuses to surrender Thorn and Dantzic (1790), 87; attempts at reform, 103, 104; the Constitution of 1791, 104, 105; invaded by the Russians (1792), 121; attacked by the Prussians (1793), 122; second partition of (1793), 122; causes of the failure of the attempt at constitutional reform, 123; insurrection in (1794), 151; victory of the Russians, 151, 152; final partition and extinction of Polish independence (1795), 152; comparison between French and Polish revolutions, 152, 153; looked favourably on by the Directory, 206; Napoleon’s campaign in 1807, 248, 249; Napoleon’s Polish policy, 261; creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 261; serfdom abolished in, 289; the Emperor Alexander’s ideas on (1814), 339; final rearrangement of (1815), 342.

Police, Ministry of General, established in France (1796), 182; abolished under the Consulate, but restored under the Empire, 241.

Polignac, Armand Jules Marie Heraclius, Comte, afterwards Duc de, French politician (1771–1847), 235.

Polish Legion formed for the service of France (1797), 206.

Pombal, Sebastian José de Carvalho-Mello, Marquis of, Portuguese statesman (1699–1782), 22.

Pomerania, Prussian, its backward state in 1789, 29.

—— Swedish, possession of, gave the King of Sweden a voice in the Diet of the Empire, 34; occupied by the French under Brune (1808), 250, 254, 279; exchanged for Norway by the treaty of Kiel (1814), 320; given to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347.

Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de (1721–64), 19.

Poniatowski, Joseph, Prince, Polish patriot, French general (1762–1813), 121, 122, App. iv.

—— Stanislas, King of Poland (1732–98), 104, 122, 151, 152.

Ponte Corvo, principality of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, 24; Bernadotte made Prince of (1806), 277.

Pontine marshes drained by Pope Pius VI., 24.

Popes. _See_ Pius VI., Pius VII.

Porentruy, district of, merged in the department of the Haut-Rhin, 230.

Portalis, Jean Etienne Marie, French statesman (1745–1807), 214, 215.

Portugal, its condition in 1789, 14, 21, 22; declares war against the French Republic (1793), 120; treaty of San Ildefonso (1796), 183; England comes to the help of, 184; attacked by Spain, and forced to cede Olivenza by the treaty of Badajoz (1801), 223; Napoleon’s schemes against, 252; to be divided by treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), 252, 253; conquered by the French, 253; rises in insurrection against the French, 265; English army sent to, 265; freed from the French by the Convention of Cintra, 266; invaded by the French under Masséna (1810), 296; their repulse (1811), 297; deserted by Castlereagh at the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348.

Portuguese Legion, formed by Junot, for the service of France, 253.

Posen, province of, taken by Prussia in the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; given back to Prussia (1815), 342.

Potemkin, Gregory Alexandrovitch, Prince, Russian statesman (1736–1791), 43, 44, 45, 96.

Potocki, Stanislas Felix, Polish statesman (1745–1805), 121.

Potsdam, treaty of (3 Nov. 1805), 247.

Pozzo di Borgo, Charles Andrew, Count, Russian diplomatist (1764–1842), 301, 337.

Praga, suburb of Warsaw, stormed by Suvórov (4 Nov. 1794), 152.

Prague, congress of (1813), 311.

Prairial, the insurrection of 1st, in Paris (1795), 155, 156.

Prefectures, Bonaparte’s establishment of, in France, 230.

Preliminaries of Leoben signed (17 April 1797), 186.

Pressburg, treaty of (26 Dec. 1805), 245.

Prieur [of the Côte-d’Or], Claude Antoine, French statesman (1763–1832), 133, 134.

—— [of the Marne], Pierre Louis, French statesman (1760–1827), 133.

Prince-Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, 39, 40.

_Profession de Foi du Vicaire Savoyard_, Rousseau’s, 10.

Proposals of Frankfort (1813), 316, 317.

Provera, John Nicholas, Baron, Austrian general (1747–1801), 176.

Prussia, administrative decay in, 5; serfdom in, 5; a member of the Triple Alliance, 13; condition in 1789, 28–30; policy of, 30, 31; intervention in Holland (1787), 32; influence in the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, 34; position of, in 1789, 84; anti-Austrian policy, 84–86; alliance with Austria against France (1792), 109; its share in the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; in the third partition of Poland (1795), 152; more anti-Austrian than anti-French, 152; makes treaty of Basle with the French Republic (1795), 156, 157; becomes protector of North Germany, by the conclusion of the line of demarcation, 170, 171; its great increase in importance by the secularisations of 1803, 227; neutrality violated by the French (1805), 244; advantages obtained by its policy of neutrality, 246; desires to fight France, 246, 247; crushed at Jena, and occupied by the French, 247; deprived of its Rhenish Westphalian and Polish provinces (1807), 250; reorganisation of, under Stein and Scharnhorst, 289–291; becomes the recognised leader of the revived German national spirit, 292; Stein’s reforms completed by Hardenberg, 303; foundation of the University of Berlin, 303, 304; obliged to allow Napoleon to traverse it, and to send him a contingent (1812), 304; rises against the French, 308, 309; receives part of Saxony (1815), 341; and part of Prussian Poland, 342; obtains large Rhenish province, 344; gets Swedish Pomerania, 347; as a result of the period becomes the preponderant German power, 359. _See_ Frederick William II., Frederick William III.

Public Safety, Committee of. _See_ Committee.

Pyramids, battle of the (21 July 1798), 195.

Pyrenees, campaigns in the, 133, 140, 144, 150, 151, 315, 316.

Quatre Bras, battle of (16 June 1815), 352.

Quedlinburg, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227.

Quiberon Bay, defeat of the French _émigrés_ at (June 1794), 154.

Quinette, Nicolas Marie, Baron, French administrator (1762–1821), 210.

Raab, battle of (14 June 1809), 273.

Rabaut de Saint-Étienne, Jean Paul, French politician (1743–93), 52.

Raclawice, battle of (4 April 1794), 151.

Radet, Étienne, Baron, French general (1762–1825), 278.

Ragusa, Duke of. _See_ Marmont.

Ramel, Jean Pierre, French general (1768–1815), 356.

—— de Nogaret, Jacques, French politician (1760–1819), 182.

Rapinat, Jacques, French administrator (1750–1818), 199, 209.

Rasomovski, Andrew, Count, afterwards Prince, Russian diplomatist (1751–1836), 323, 337.

Rastadt, Congress at, 186, 192, 202.

Ratisbon, bishopric of, granted to the Elector of Mayence (1803), 225; to the King of Bavaria (1805), 260.

—— a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, where the Imperial Diet met, 35, 225, 257.

Reason, the Worship of, in Paris, 141; attacked by Danton and Robespierre, 142.

Receivers-general of taxes, their establishment under the Consulate, 215.

Reden, Baron, Dutch diplomatist (♰1799), 87.

Regency, Portuguese, formed (1808), 266.

Reggio, duchy of, belonged to the Duke of Modena in 1789, 25; merged in the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192.

—— Duke of. _See_ Oudinot.

Regnier, Claude Ambroise, Duke of Massa, French statesman (1736–1814), 216, 239, 240, 241.

Reichenbach, conference, Congress and convention of (June 1790), 87, 88; treaty of (17 June 1813), 310.

Reichskammergericht. _See_ Tribunal, Imperial.

Reichstag. _See_ Diet, Imperial.

Reign of Terror in France. _See_ Terror.

Reinhard, Charles Frédéric, Comte, French diplomatist (1761–1837), 210.

Renier, Paolo (♰1789), Doge of Venice in 1789, 27.

Repnin, Nicholas Vassilievitch, Prince, Russian general (1734–1801), 44, 96.

Retreats, famous military: Moreau’s, from Bavaria (1796), 178; Moore’s, from Salamanca (1808–09), 269, 270; Napoleon’s, from Moscow (1812), 306.

Reubell, Jean François, French statesman (1747–1807), 150, 156, 165, 169, 179, 181, 191, 209.

Réunion, island of (Isle of Bourbon), restored to France (1815), 348.

Reuss, the principalities of, states of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Reuss, Prince Anton von (1738–96), 87.

Réveillon, Jean (1796), sack of his house at Paris (June 1789), 56.

Revellière-Lépeaux, Louis Marie de la, French statesman (1753–1824), 165, 171, 181, 182, 209.

Revolution, the reasons why it began in France, 7, 8. _See_ France.

Revolutionary Propaganda, decreed by the Convention (18 Nov. 1792), 118; its effect on the character of the war, 125; the decree repealed (16 May 1793), 133; idea adopted by the Hébertists, 141; formally abandoned by the Thermidorian Committee of Public Safety, 148, 159.

—— Tribunal. _See_ Tribunal.

_Révolutions de Paris_, important journal edited by Loustalot, 61.

Reynier, Jean Louis Ebenezer, Comte, French general (1771–1814), 256, 296.

Rhine, the, declared the natural boundary of France, 157; crossed by Moreau (1796), 178; by Moreau (1797), 186; by Blücher (1813), 318.

—— Confederation of the, formed by Napoleon (1806), 245; its members, 260, 261; replaced by the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342, 343.

Ricci, Scipio de, Bishop of Pistoia, Italian statesman (1741–1810), 24, 83.

Richelieu, Armand Emmanuel Sophie Septimanie du Plessis, Duc de, French statesman (1766–1822), 357.

Ried, treaty of (8 Oct. 1813), 313, 314.

Riga, besieged by the French under Macdonald (1812), 307.

Rivers, stipulations on the navigation of, 349.

Rivière, Charles François de Riffardeau, Marquis, afterwards Duc de, French _émigré_ (1763–1827), 235.

Rivoli, battle of (14 Jan. 1797), 176. —— Duke of. _See_ Masséna.

Roberjot, Claude, French politician (1753–99), 202.

Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isidore de, French statesman (1758–1794), opposes intervention of France on behalf of Spain (1790), 78; moves motion preventing election of deputies of the Constituent to the Legislative Assembly, 105; opposes war with Austria, 105; a leader in the Convention, 117; attacked by Louvet, 117; views on the King’s trial, 119; his struggle with the Girondins, 129; member of the Committee of Public Safety, 133; his position and character, 134, 135; attacks the Hébertists, 142; establishes the Worship of the Supreme Being, 146; overthrown in Thermidor (1794), 146, 147; guillotined, 147.

Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de, French general (1725–1807), 107.

Rödt, Baron of, Prince-Bishop of Constance in 1789, 39.

Roggenbach, Baron Joseph Sigismund of, Prince-Bishop of Basle in 1789 (♰1794), 39.

Roland de la Platière, Jean Marie, French administrator (1734–93), 110, 112, 114.

—— Manon Jeanne, Madame (1754–93), her salon, 116.

Roliça, battle of (17 Aug. 1808), 265.

Romagna, the, part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192.

Roman Empire, the Holy. _See_ Empire.

Roman Republic, the, established (1798), 200; overthrown (1799), 203.

Rome, administration of the Popes at, 24; occupied by French troops (1798), 200; evacuated by them, 203; annexed by Napoleon (1810), 255; declared the second city of the Empire, 277, 278; capital of a French department, 283; restored to the Pope (1815), 347.

Rosas, taken by the French (3 Feb. 1795), 150, 151.

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, Genevese philosopher (1712–78), 9, 10, 41, 146.

Roussillon, 130, 140.

Ruffo, Alvaro, Commander, afterwards Prince, Neapolitan diplomatist (♰1825), 338, 346.

Rügen, island of, belonged to Sweden in 1789, 32. _See_ Pomerania, Swedish.

Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count, Bavarian statesman (1753–1814), 37.

Russia, condition and growth of, under Catherine, 18, 19; invaded by the Swedes (1788–90), 45, 95; obtains increase of territory by the treaty of Jassy (1792), 96; her share in the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; in the third partition (1795), 152; accession of Paul, 185, 198; her intervention in the war with France and its results, 206, 207; disapproves of war with England, 221; murder of Paul (1801), 221; trade of, 234; joins the coalition against Napoleon (1805), 242, 243; defeated at Eylau, 248; and Friedland, 249; results, 249; cessions made to, by the treaty of Tilsit, 249, 250, 261; grumbles at the Continental Blockade, 261, 300; attitude towards Austria (1809), 272; annexes Finland, 278, 299, 302; its cessions from the Turks in 1812, 281; incited by England to war with France, 301; invaded by Napoleon (1812), 305, 306; drives out the French, 306; its share in the overthrow of Napoleon, 334; its annexations from Poland (1815), 341, 342; a result of the period its taking a prominent place in European polity, 359, 360. _See_ Alexander, Catherine, Paul.

Russian Armament, the (1788), 45.

Rymnik, battle of the (12 Aug. 1789), 45.

Sacilio, battle of (16 April 1809), 273.

Safety, Public, Committee of. _See_ Committee.

Saint-Aignan, Paul Hippolyte de Beauvilliers, Marquis de, French diplomatist (1782–1831), 316.

Saint-André, André Jeanbon, _called_, French administrator (1749–1813), 133.

Saint Bernard, the Great, 218.

Saint Bernard, the Little, 151.

Saint-Claude, abbey of, in the Jura, 6.

Saint-Cloud, the Councils removed to from Paris, 210; Bonaparte’s _coup d’état_ of 18 Brumaire (1799) at, 211.

Saint-Cyr, Laurent Gouvion de. _See_ Gouvion.

Saint-Gall, the canton of, created by Bonaparte (1803), 228; recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344.

Saint-Gothard, Suvórov’s passage of the (1799), 204.

Saint Helena, Napoleon deported to (1815), 355.

Saint-Helens, Alleyne Fitzherbert, Lord. _See_ Fitzherbert.

Saint-Just, Louis Léon Antoine Florelle de, French politician (1767–94), 133, 135, 138, 140, 142, 147.

Saint Lucia, island of, ceded to France (1783), 19; restored to England by the first treaty of Paris (1814), 333; by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348.

Saint-Marsan, Filippo Antonio Maria Asinari, Marquis de, Italian diplomatist (1761–1828), 338.

Saint Ouen, Declaration of (2 May 1814), 332, 333.

Saint-Petersburg, threatened by the Swedes (1790), 95.

Saint Priest, Guillaume Emmanuel Guignard, Comte de, French _émigré_, Russian general (1776–1814), 328.

Saint-Vincent, battle of (14 Feb. 1797), 183.

Saint-Vincent, Sir John Jervis, Earl. _See_ Jervis.

Salamanca, Moore’s advance to (1808), 269; battle of (22 July 1812), 306.

Saliceti, Christophe, French politician (1757–1809), 256.

Salkief, circle of, in Poland, ceded to Russia (1807), 261.

Salm, petty German principalities (1789), 34; territories in Germany annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282.

—— Salm, Constantine Alexander, Prince of (1762–1828), 79.

Salomon, Gabriel René, French politician (♰1792), 60.

Salzburg, the Archbishop of, alternate president of the College of Princes in 1789, 34.

Salzburg, archbishopric of, made into an electorate for the Grand Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany (1803), 225, 229; ceded to Bavaria (1809), 257, 274; restored to Austria (1815), 344.

San Domingo, Bonaparte’s attempt to reconquer (1802), 232.

—— Ildefonso, treaty of (19 Aug. 1796), 183.

—— Sebastian, threatened by the French (1794), 144; taken by the French (1795), 157; stormed by Wellington (1813), 315, 316.

Saorgio, battle of (29 April 1794), 144.

Saragossa, siege of (1809), 275.

Sardinia, kingdom of, condition in 1789, 26, 27; attacked by the French (1792), 117; subsidised by England, 126; restored to Victor Emmanuel I., with the addition of Genoa, 346; got back Savoy (1815), 354. _See_ Charles Emmanuel III., Victor Amadeus IV., Victor Emmanuel I., _also_ Nice, Piedmont, Savoy.

Savigny, Frederick Charles von, German jurist (1779–1861), 304.

Savona, Pope Pius VII. imprisoned at, 278.

Savoy, part of the kingdom of Sardinia in 1789, 26; conquered by the French (1792), 117; annexed to France, 118; ceded by the King of Sardinia (1797), 174; made into the department of Mont-Blanc, 230; left to France (1814), 333; restored to the King of Sardinia (1815), 354.

Saxe-Coburg, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342.

—— —— Saalfeld, Prince Francis Josias of. _See_ Coburg, Prince of.

—— Gotha, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

—— Hildburghausen, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

—— Meiningen, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Saxe-Teschen, Duke Albert of, Austrian general (1738–1822), 113.

Saxe-Weimar, duchy of, 38; made a Grand Duchy and a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. _See_ Charles Augustus.

Saxony, electorate of, its condition in 1789, 38; receives Lower Lusatia, and made a kingdom (1806), 259; a state of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; invaded by Schill (1809), 293; occupied by Napoleon (1813), 309; proposition to merge it in Prussia rejected (1814), 339, 340; part of, ceded to Prussia (1815), 341; a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. _See_ Frederick Augustus.

Schaffhausen, Thurgau, separated from the canton of, by Bonaparte (1803), 228.

Scharnhorst, Gerard David von, Prussian general (1755–1813), reorganised the Prussian army, 290, 291, 308; mortally wounded at Lützen, 309.

Scheldt, navigation of the, declared free by the National Convention, 118.

Schérer, Barthélemy Louis Joseph, French general (1747–1804), 173, 190, 202, 203.

Schill, Friedrich, Prussian officer (1773–1809), 293.

Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich, German poet (1759–1805), 9, 38.

Schimmelpenninck, Roger John, Count, Dutch statesman (1761–1825), 254.

Schleiermacher, Ernst Friedrich, German philosopher (1779–1834), 304.

Schlieffen, Friedrich von, Prussian general (♰1791), 63, 65, 94, 95.

Schönbrunn, treaty of (15 Feb. 1806), 247.

Schönfeld, Wilhelm Christoph von, Prussian general (♰1797), 65, 93.

Schulenburg, Friedrich Wilhelm, Count von, Prussian statesman (1730–1802), 126.

—— —— Albert, Count von, Saxon diplomatist (1772–1853), 338.

Schulz, pastor of Gielsdorf, the case of, 10.

Schwartzberg, two principalities of, recognised as states of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

Schwartzenberg, Prince Charles Philip von, Austrian general (1771–1820), 294, 305, 312, 313, 318, 319, 320, 328, 329, 350, 353.

Schweitz, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228.

Séance Royale, held by Louis XVI. (23 June 1789), 54.

Sebastiani, François Horace Bastien, Comte, French general (1772–1851), 275, 280.

Secularisation of the ecclesiastical states of the Empire proposed by France, 170; agreed to at Lunéville (1801), 220; its tendency, 226; carried out (1803), and its effects, 226, 227.

Security, General, Committee of. _See_ Committee.

Selim III., Sultan of the Ottoman Turks (1761–1808), 44, 88, 89, 96, 280, 281.

Senate of France, established by the Constitution of the Year VIII., its functions, 214; given power to dissolve the Tribunate and Legislative Body (1803), 232; offers the title of Emperor to Napoleon (1804), 236; its position under the Empire, 240, 284; appoints a Provisional Government (1814), 330; declares Napoleon dethroned, 331.

Serfdom in Europe in the 18th century, 5, 6; abolished in Hungary by Joseph II., 16; the Russian peasant partly protected from, by his village organisation, 19; prevalent in Prussia, 29, 30; abolished in Denmark (1788), 32; abolished in Baden (1783), 37; its existence a cause of the failure of the Poles to maintain their independence, 152; disappeared from Central Europe under the influence of the French Revolution and Napoleon, 288, 289; abolished in Prussia by Stein, 290; its general abolition a permanent result of the period, 361.

Sérurier, Jean Mathieu Philibert, French general (1742–1819), App. iv.

Servan, Joseph, French general (1741–1808), 114.

Servia, conquered by the Austrians under Loudon (1789), 45; independence recognised by the Turks (1812), 281.

Shumla, 281.

Sicily, not much affected by Tanucci’s reforms, 23; held by the English for Ferdinand IV., 256, 264.

Sidmouth, Henry Addington, Viscount. _See_ Addington.

Sieges: Acre (1799), 208; Alessandria (1799), 203, 204; Alexandria (1801), 224; Almeida (1811), 296; Antwerp (1814), 321; Badajoz (1812), 306; Bayonne (1814), 316, 321; Bender (1789), 45; Burgos(1812), 307; Cadiz (1810–12), 296, 297; Cairo (1801), 224; Ciudad Rodrigo (1812), 306; Condé (1793), 130; Dantzic (1806–7), 248, 249; Dantzic (1813–14), 319; Dunkirk (1793), 130, 140; Gaeta (1807), 256; Genoa (1799–1800), 205, 206, 218; Giurgevo (1790), 88; Hamburg (1813–14), 319, 320; Ismail (1789–90), 45, 96; Landau (1793), 140; Le Quesnoy (1793), 130; Lille (1792), 114, 118; Lyons (1793), 131, 140; Magdeburg (1813–14), 319; Mantua (1796–97), 175, 176; Mantua (1799), 203; Maubeuge (1793), 140; Mayence (1793), 130; Mayence (1795), 172; Mayence (1797), 193; Ochakov (1788), 43, 44; Orsova (1789–90), 45, 88; Pampeluna (1813), 316; Riga (1812), 307; San Sebastian (1813), 315, 316; Saragossa (1809), 275; Stettin (1813–14), 319; Tarragona (1812), 307; Toulon (1793), 140; Valenciennes (1793), 130; Warsaw (1794), 151, 152.

Siena, 24, 283.

Sieyès, Emmanuel Joseph, Comte, French statesman (1748–1836), 53, 54, 60, 150, 156, 159, 165, 166, 182, 197, 209, 219, 211, 213, 357.

Silesia, the Prussian Army of, formed under Blücher (1813), 309; defeated the French at the Katzbach, 319; crosses the Rhine, 318; cut to pieces by Napoleon, 319.

Silistria, taken by Kutuzov (1811), 281.

Siméon, Joseph Jerome, Comte, French administrator (1749–1842), 259.

Sistova, congress of (1790–91), 88; treaty of (4 Aug. 1791), 89.

Slave trade, the Negro, condemned by the Congress of Vienna at the demand of Castlereagh (1815), 348, 349.

Smith, Sir William Sidney, English admiral (1764–1840), 145, 208.

Smolensk, 305, 306.

Socialism opposed even by the Hébertists, 141.

Soleure, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228.

Soltikov, Ivan, Count, Russian general (1736–1805), 43.

Somo Sierra, Napoleon forces the pass of the (1808), 269.

Sotin de la Coindière, Pierre, French administrator (1764–1810), Minister of Police (1797), 190.

Soult, Nicolas Jean de Dieu, Duke of Dalmatia, French general (1769–1851), 269, 270, 275, 296, 297, 315, 316, 321, 332, App. iv.

Sovereignty of the people, the doctrine of, 2.

Spain, allied to France by the Pacte de Famille, 14; its condition in 1789, 20, 21; the reforms of Aranda, 21; demands the help of France against England in the Nootka Sound affair (1790), 78; declares war against France (1793), 119; subsidised by England, 126; invades France, 130; defeated by the French (1794), 140; invaded by the French (1795), 144; weary of the war with France, 154; makes peace with France at Basle (1795), 157; makes alliance with France at San Ildefonso, and attacks England, 183; fleet defeated off Cape St. Vincent (1797), 183; Bonaparte’s communications with, 223; attacks Portugal, and gets Olivenza by the treaty of Badajoz (1801), 223; cedes Louisiana to France, 232; agrees at Fontainebleau for the partition of Portugal, 252, 253; course of politics in, 266, 267; Napoleon makes Joseph Bonaparte king of (1808), 267; the Spanish people rise against the French, 267, 268; Napoleon in Spain, 268–70; the guerilla war against the French, 297; evacuated by the French (1813), 315; lost Trinidad, but kept Olivenza at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 348; reactionary policy of Ferdinand VII. in (1815), 358. _See_ Charles IV., Ferdinand VII., Joseph, Peninsular War.

Spanish Armament, the (1790), 78.

Spielmann, Anton, Baron von, Austrian diplomatist (♰1738–1813), Austrian representative at Reichenbach (1790), 87.

Spires, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34; and one of the Princes holding largest fiefs in Alsace, 79.

—— bishopric of, the portion on the right bank of the Rhine merged in Baden (1803), 227.

—— city of, taken by Custine (1792), 118.

Splügen pass, forced by Macdonald (1800), 219.

Stäblo, Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34.

Stackelberg, Gustavus, Count von, Russian diplomatist (♰1825), 337.

Stadion, John Philip Charles Joseph, Count, Austrian statesman (1763–1824), tried to rouse Germany against Napoleon, 270, 271; succeeded by Metternich (1809), 275; inspired by Gentz, 292; Austrian plenipotentiary at Châtillon (1814), 323.

Staps, Friedrich (1792–1809), schemed to assassinate Napoleon, 293.

State, doctrine of the, 4, 292.

States of the Church. _See_ Papal States.

States-General of France, summoned (1788), 43; a financial expedient, 49, 50; the elections to, 50, 51; struggle between the Orders, 52, 53; declares itself the National Assembly, 53. _See_ Constituent Assembly.

Stein, Henry Frederick Charles, Freiherr von, Prussian statesman (1757–1831), a Knight of the Empire, 40; his reforms in Prussia, 290; dismissed by Napoleon’s orders, 291; pressed Alexander to war with Napoleon, 301; his work completed by Hardenberg, 303; at the Russian headquarters (1812), 304; summoned the Estates of Prussia at Königsberg, 308; his idea of rousing a German national spirit abandoned by the allied monarchs (1813), 310; present at the Congress of Vienna, 337.

Stéphanie Tascher de la Pagerie (1789–1860), married to the Hereditary Grand Duke of Baden (1806), 258.

Stettin, French garrison left in (1813), 308; besieged (1813–14), 319.

Stewart, Hon. Sir Charles, afterwards Lord, English general and diplomatist (1778–1854), 301, 323, 337.

—— Robert, Viscount Castlereagh. _See_ Castlereagh.

Stockach, battle of (25 March 1799), 202.

Stralsund, taken by the French (1807), 250.

Strasbourg, Archbishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34; one of chief Princes of the Empire in Alsace, 79.

—— archbishopric of, the portion on the right bank of the Rhine ceded to Baden (1803), 227.

Stuart, Hon. Sir Charles, English general (1753–1801), 184, 195.

—— Sir John, English general (1762–1810), 256.

Stuttgart, 37, 38, 178.

Suchet, Louis Gabriel, Duke of Albufera, French general (1770–1826), 275, 297, 307, 315, App. iv.

Sudermania, Duke of. _See_ Charles XIII., King of Sweden.

Supreme Being, Worship of the, established by Robespierre (1794), 146.

Suspects, Law of the, 137.

Suvórov, Alexander Vassilivitch, Count, afterwards Prince, Russian general (1729–1800), gallantry at the siege of Ochákov (1788), 44; defeats the Turks at Foksany and the Rymnik (1789), 45; stormed Ismail, and served at Matchin (1790–91), 96; defeated the Poles at Zielence and Dubienka (1792), 121, 122; defeated Kosciuszko at Maciejowice, and took Warsaw (1794), 152; defeats the French at Cassano and the Trebbia, and conquers Northern Italy (1799), 203; defeats Joubert at Novi, and crosses the Alps, 204; repulsed by the French, 205; accuses the Austrians of causing his failure, 207.

Svenska Sound, battle of (9 July 1790), 95.

Swabia, part ceded to Bavaria, 245; part to Würtemburg, 258.

Sweden, its condition in 1789, 32, 33; at war with Russia and Denmark, 45, 46; makes peace with the Danes (1789), 46; the _coup d’état_ of Gustavus III. (1789), 46; peace with Russia, 95, 96; death of Gustavus III., 110; neutral in the war against France, 120, 124, 171; loses Pomerania and Finland, 250, 254; revolution in, and dethronement of Gustavus IV. (1809), 278, 279; Bernadotte elected Prince Royal (1810), 279; exchanges Pomerania for Norway by the treaty of Kiel (1814), 320; cession of Norway confirmed by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. _See_ Bernadotte, Charles XIII., Gustavus III., Gustavus IV.

Switzerland, its condition in 1789, 41; its neutrality in the war against France, 120, 125, 171; headquarters of French diplomacy, 156; and of the _émigrés_ diplomacy, 166, 167; revolution of 1798, 198, 199; invaded by the French and the Helvetian Republic formed, 199; Masséna’s campaign in (1799), 204, 205; reorganised by Bonaparte as the Confederation of Switzerland (1803), 228, 229; neutrality of, violated by the allies (1814), 318; independence and neutrality guaranteed by the treaty of Paris (1814), 334; reorganised, and given a fresh constitution by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344, 345.

Syria, Bonaparte’s campaign in (1799), 208.

Tagliamento, Bonaparte forces the passage of the (16 March 1797), 185, 186.

Talavera, battle of (27 July 1809), 275.

Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, Bishop of Autun, afterwards Prince of Benevento, French statesman (1754–1838), consecrates the Constitutional bishops in France (1790), 70; appointed Foreign Minister (1797), and advocated the _coup d’état_ of 18 Fructidor, 190; resigned (1799), 210; advised Bonaparte to the _coup d’état_ of 18 Brumaire, 210; Foreign Minister under the Consulate, 216; Grand Chamberlain of the Empire, 239; Foreign Minister under the Empire, 241; created Prince of Benevento, 277; his policy after the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, 329, 330; President of the Provisional Government of France, 330; gets the Bourbons accepted, 331; negotiates the first treaty of Paris, 333; French plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 338; his masterly attitude, 338, 339; signs treaty with Austria and England against Russia and Prussia (3 Jan. 1815), 340; dismissed by Louis XVIII. (1815), 357.

Tallien, Jean Lambert, French politician (1769–1820), 166.

Talma, François Joseph, French actor (1763–1826), 262.

Tanucci, Bernardo, Marquis, Italian statesman (1698–1783), 4, 23.

Taranto, Duke of. _See_ Macdonald.

Targovitsa, Confederation of, asks Catherine’s aid to overthrow the Polish Constitution of 1791, 121.

Tarragona, English failure before (1812), 307.

Tauroggen, convention of (1812), 308.

Temeswar, the Banat of, invaded by the Turks (1788), 43.

Tennis Court, Oath of the (20 June 1789), 54.

Terror, the Reign of, weapons of, forged, 128; Robespierre deemed the author of, 135, 147; the system of, 135–138; the deputies on mission, 136, 137; revolutionary tribunal, 137, 138; the Terror in the provinces, 138, 139; excused by France because of the success of the Committee of Public Safety against the foreign foes, 141; Danton believed it too stringent, 143; rose to its height (June-July 1794), 145, 146; system abandoned, 148.

—— the White, in France (1815), 356, 357.

Tetterborn, Baron von, Russian general (♰1836), 308.

Teutonic Order, the, suppressed by Hardenberg in Prussia, 303.

Texel, Dutch fleet in the, captured by French hussars (1795), 149; blockaded by the English fleet, 184, 193; defeated in the battle of Camperdown (1797), 194; captured by the English (1799), 205.

Theo-philanthropy, new religion started in France, 181, 182.

Thermidor, overthrow of Robespierre on the 9th, 147.

Thermidorians, rule of the, 148, 149, 154–157; their foreign policy, 156, 157.

Thompson, Benjamin, Count Rumford. _See_ Rumford.

Thorn, promised to Prussia by the Poles (1790), 85; but not surrendered (1791), 87; obtained by Prussia at the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; restored to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 342.

Thouret, Jacques Guillaume, French politician (1746–94), 100.

Thugut, Franz Maria, Baron, Austrian statesman (1734–1818), becomes Austrian Foreign Minister, 126; his policy, 153, 154; in favour of continuing the war with France, 169; delayed the treaty of Campo-Formio as long as he could, 192; retired from office, 220.

Thurgau, canton of, formed by Bonaparte (1803), 228; recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344.

Thuriot de la Rozière, Jacques Alexis, French politician (1758–1829), 133.

Thurn and Taxis, Prince of, as Imperial Commissary, summoned the Diet of the Empire (1792), 108.

Ticino, canton of, formed by Bonaparte (1803), 228; recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344.

Tiers État, Order of the, in the States-General, its struggle with the privileged Orders, 51, 53; declares itself the National Assembly, 53.

Tillot, Guillaume Léon du, Marquis of Felino, Italian statesman (1711–1774), 25.

Tilsit, the meeting of Napoleon and Alexander at, 249, 250; the treaty of (7 July 1807), 250.

Tirlemont, 48, 64.

Titles abolished in France by the Constituent Assembly, 60.

Tloczow, circle of, ceded to Russia (1807), 26.

Tobac, battle of (1789), 45.

Tobago, ceded by England to France (1783), 19; ceded to England by the treaty of Paris (1814), 333; cession recognised by the Congress of Vienna, 348.

Tolentino, treaty of (19 Feb. 1797), 177; battle of (3 May 1815), 346.

Toleration, Napoleon insists on religious, in Europe, 289.

Töplitz, treaty of (9 Sept. 1813), 313.

Torgau ceded by Saxony to Prussia (1815), 341.

Torres Vedras, Masséna repulsed from the lines of (1810), 296.

Tortona, fortress of, built by Victor Amadeus III., 27.

Toulon, 139, 140.

Toulouse, battle of (10 April 1814), 332.

Trafalgar, battle of (21 Oct. 1805), 244, 245.

Trautmannsdorf, Count Albert von, Austrian statesman (1749–1817), 47, 64.

Treaties: Amiens (1802), 225; Badajoz (1801), 223; Bartenstein (1807), 248; Basle (1795), 156, 157; Bucharest (1812), 281; Campo-Formio (1797), 192, 193; Chaumont (1814), 327, 328; Fontainebleau (1807), 252, 253; Ghent (1814), 341; Jassy (1792), 96; Kalisch (1813), 308; Kiel (1814), 320; Lunéville (1801), 219, 220; Paris, Provisional (1814), 331, 332; Paris, First (1814), 333, 334; Paris, Second (1815), 353, 354; Pfaffenhofen (1796), 180; Potsdam (1805), 247; Pressburg (1805), 245; Reichenbach (1813), 310; Ried (1813), 313, 314; San Ildefonso (1796), 183; Schönbrunn (1806), 247; of 3 Jan. 1815, secret, 341; of 1756, 11, 12, 19; Sistova (1791), 89; Tilsit (1807), 250; Tolentino (1797), 177; Töplitz (1813), 313; Verela (1790), 95–96; Versailles (1783), 13, 19, 28; Vienna (1809), 274; Vienna (1815), 350; Warsaw (1790), 85.

Trebbia, battle of the (17–19 June 1799), 203.

Treilhard, Jean Baptiste, Comte, French statesman (1742–1810), 148, 166, 195, 209.

Trent, Macdonald joined by Brune at (1800), 219.

—— bishopric of, granted to Austria (1803), 226.

Trèves, the Archbishop of, an Elector in 1789, 34; one of the chief Princes of the Empire, with fiefs in Alsace, 79; electorate abolished (1803), 225.

—— city of, taken by the French (1795), 150; capital of a French department, 230.

—— electorate of, well governed in 1789, 40; conquered by the French under Moreaux (1795), 150; ceded to France, 193, 225; given to Prussia (1815), 344.

Treviso, Duke of. _See_ Mortier.

Tribunal, the Imperial, of the Holy Roman Empire (Reichskammergericht), 35.

—— the Revolutionary, of Paris, established (March 1793), 128; its powers and effect, 137; its system of work, 138; its powers increased (June 1794), 146, 147; condemns Carrier, 149.

Tribunate, formed by the Constitution of the Year VIII., its functions, 214; reduced to fifty members (1805), 240; suppressed (1808), 284.

Trieste ceded to Napoleon (1809), 274.

Trinidad, island of, taken by the English (1797), 264; ceded to England by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348.

Triple Alliance, the, of England, Holland, and Prussia, formed 1788, 13, 32.

Tronchet, François Denis, French jurist (1726–1806), 215.

Truguet, Laurent Jean François, Comte, French admiral (1752–1839), 166, 190.

Tudela, battle of (23 Nov. 1808), 269.

Tuileries, Palace at Paris, 62, 99, 100, 112, 113, 129, 155, 164, 165.

Turin, observatory at, built by Victor Amadeus III., 26; threatened by Bonaparte (1796), 174; occupied by Suvórov (1799), 203.

Turkey, travelling to decay, 14; Joseph declares war against, 17; campaign of 1788 against the Russians and Austrians, 43, 44; accession of Sultan Selim (1789), 44; campaign of 1789, 45; Prussia negotiates with, 45, 85; campaign of 1790 against the Austrians, 88; treaty of Sistova (1791), 89; campaign of 1790–91 against the Russians, 96; treaty of Jassy (1792), 96; looked with favour on the French Revolution, 171; defeated by Bonaparte in Syria and Egypt (1799), 208; French army in Illyria to threaten, 256; its general policy (1796–1807), 280; revolution in, and accession of Mahmoud (1807–08), 280, 281; war with Russia (1809–12), 281; treaty of Bucharest (1812), 281. _See_ Abdul Hamid, Mahmoud, Mustapha, Selim.

Turreau, Louis Marie, Baron, French general (1756–1816), 141.

Tuscany, its prosperity under the Grand Duke Leopold, 24, 25; declares war against France (1793), 120; makes peace with France, 157, 171; occupied by the French (1799), 200; evacuated by them, 203; restored to the Grand Duke Ferdinand (1800), 206; made into the kingdom of Etruria (1801), 220; annexed to Napoleon’s Empire (1808), 255; Elisa Bonaparte, Grand Duchess of, 283; restored to Ferdinand (1815), 347. _See_ Ferdinand II., Leopold.

Two Sicilies, kingdom of the. _See_ Naples.

Tyrol, the opposition to Joseph’s reforms in, 15; Joseph suspends his edicts, 66; pacified by Leopold (1790), 84; invaded by Bonaparte (1797), 186; by Macdonald (1800), 219; ceded to Bavaria (1805), 245; Hofer’s insurrection in (1809), 273, 274; restored to Austria by Bavaria (1815), 344.

Ulm, 35, 243, 244.

United States of America, 145, 159, 160, 242, 341.

Universities: Berlin, 303, 304; Bonn, 40; Cracow, 105; Göttingen, 39; Jena, 38; Mannheim, 37; Milan, 26; Parma, 25; Pavia, 26; Pisa, 24; Siena, 24.

University of France founded by Napoleon, its constitution, 288.

Unterwalden, canton of Switzerland maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228.

Unzmarkt, battle of (22 March 1797), 186.

Uri, a canton of Switzerland, 41, 228.

Vadier, Marc Guillaume Alexis, French politician (1736–1828), 149, 155.

Valais, the, declared an independent Republic (1803), 228; annexed by Napoleon (1810), 283; made a canton of Switzerland by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 345.

Valence, Pope Pius VI. dies at (1798), 203.

Valencia, taken by Moncey (1809), 275.

Valenciennes, taken by the English and Austrians (1793), 130.

Valmy, battle of (20 Sept. 1792), 115.

—— Duke of. _See_ Kellermann.

Valsarno, battle of (26 Oct. 1813), 315.

Vancouver Island, the affair of Nootka Sound (1790), 77, 78; the Spaniards claim, 79.

Vandamme, Dominique René, Comte, French general (1770–1830), 309, 312, 313.

Van der Mersch, John Andrew, Belgian general (1734–92), 48, 64, 93.

Van der Noot, Henry Charles Nicholas, Belgian statesman (1735–1827), 48, 64, 65, 92, 93, 94.

Vandernootists or Statists, Belgian political party, 47, 48, 92, 93.

Van der Spiegel, John, Baron, Dutch statesman, Grand Pensionary of Holland, 65, 93.

Varennes, the flight of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette from Paris (June 1791), stopped at, 100.

Vauchamps, battle of (14 Feb. 1814), 319.

Vaud, Pays de, revolts against Berne (1798), 199; made an independent canton of Switzerland by Bonaparte (1803), 228; recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344.

Venaissin, the county of the, 76, 333, 354.

Vendée, La, the insurrection in, 128, 130, 131, 141, 143, 180, 181, 215.

Vendémiaire, the insurrection of 13th (5 Oct. 1795), in Paris, 164, 165.

Venice, condition of the Republic in 1789, 27; remained neutral in the war against the French Republic, 124; promised to Austria in exchange for Lombardy at Leoben, 186; occupied by Bonaparte (1797), 191, 192; ceded the Ionian Islands to France, 192; ceded to Austria by the Treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; conclave met at (1799), 206; occupied by Brune (1800), 219; ceded to Austria by the Treaty of Lunéville (1801), 220; ceded to the kingdom of Italy by the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), 245, 255; granted to Austria by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347.

Verdun, taken by the Prussians (1792), 114, 115.

Verela, treaty of (14 Aug. 1790), 95, 96.

Vergniaud, Pierre Victurnien, French politician (1753–93), 106, 114, 116, 129.

Verona, belonged to Venice in 1789, 27; punished by Bonaparte for the murder of French soldiers (1796), 191; Schérer attacked at, 202.

Versailles, the States-General meets at (May 1789), 51; invaded by the women of Paris (5 Oct. 1789), 62.

—— the treaty of (1783), 13, 19, 28.

Veto, the question of the, in the Constituent Assembly, 61.

Vicenza, Duke of. _See_ Caulaincourt.

Victor Amadeus III., King of Sardinia (1726–96), 26, 27, 63, 117, 126, 173, 174.

—— Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia (1759–1824), 346, 354.

—— Victor Claude Perrin, _called_, French general (1764–1841), 269, 275, 276, 297, App. iv.

Vienna, the inscription on the Emperor Joseph’s statue at, 66; Bernadotte insulted at (1798), 198; the French approach (1801), 219; occupied by Napoleon (1805), 244; and (1809), 273; treaty of (1809), 274; and (1815), 350.

—— the Congress of, 336, 350, 337, 338, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 347, 348, 349.

_Vieux Cordelier_, the, 142, 143.

Villeneuve, Pierre Charles Jean Baptiste Silvestre de, French admiral (1763–1806), 242, 244, 245.

Vimeiro, battle of (21 Aug. 1808), 265, 266.

Vins, Charles, Baron de, Austrian general (♰1794), 88.

Virtue, Reign of, Robespierre’s belief in a, 146.

Visconti, Ennius Quirinus, Italian antiquary (1751–1818), 24.

Vittoria, taken by the French (1795), 151; battle of (21 June 1813), 315.

Volhynia, province of, ceded to Russia at the second partition of Poland (1793), 122.

Volta, Alessandro, Italian man of science (1745–1827), 26.

Voltaire, François Marie, Arouet de, French philosopher (1694–1778), 6, 9.

Vonck, Francis, Belgian politician (1752–1797), 48, 93.

Vonckists, Belgian political party, 48, 65, 92, 93.

Vyborg, the Swedish fleet blockaded in the Gulf of (1790), 95.

Wagram, battle of (6 July 1809), 274.

Walcheren, the English expedition to (1809), 276.

Waldeck, principality of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343.

—— Prince Christian Augustus of, Austrian general (1744–98), 184.

Wallachia, invaded by the Austrians (1789), 45; conquered by the Russians (1810), 281.

Warsaw, treaty made at, between the Poles and Prussia (29 March 1790), 85; occupied by Kosciuszko (1794), 151; besieged by the Prussians, 151; taken by the Russians, 152; ceded to Prussia (1795), 152; Napoleon enters (1807), 248; given to Russia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 342.

Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, founded by Napoleon (1807), 259, 261; Western Galicia ceded to, by Austria (1809), 274; dissolved (1815), 342.

Waterloo, battle of (18 June 1815), 353.

Watteville, Nicholas Rodolphe de, Swiss statesman (1760–1832), 228.

Wattignies, battle of (16 Oct. 1793), 140.

Weimar, headquarters of the German literary movement, 38. _See_ Saxe-Weimar.

Wellesley, Hon. Sir Arthur, Duke of Wellington. _See_ Wellington.

—— Richard, Marquis, English statesman (1760–1842), 295.

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, English general (1769–1852), defeated the Danish army at Kioge (1807), 252; sent to Portugal (1808), 265; defeats the French at Roliça and Vimeiro, 265, 266; recalled, 266; again sent to Portugal (1809), 275; takes Oporto, 275; defeats the French at Talavera, 275, 276; forms the Anglo-Portuguese army, 296; campaign of 1810, 1811, 296, 297; campaign of 1812 and victory of Salamanca, 306; wins battle of Vittoria (1813), 315; invades France, and wins battles of the Nivelle and the Nive (1813), 316; wins battle of Orthez (1814), 321; his attitude towards the Duc d’Angoulême, 326, 327; defeats Soult at Toulouse, 332; succeeds Castlereagh as English plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna (1815), 341, 349; signs the treaty of Vienna, 350; takes command of the allied armies in Belgium, 352; defeats Napoleon at Waterloo, 353.

Werden, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227.

Wessenberg-Ampfingen, Johann Philip, Baron von, Austrian diplomatist (1773–1858), 337.

West India Islands, the French, taken by the English, 154; restored at the Peace of Amiens (1802), 232; recaptured (1809), 264; restored except Saint Lucia and Tobago (1815), 348.

Westphalia, kingdom of, formed by Napoleon (1807), 250; its limits, 258; administration, 258, 259; member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260.

Wetzlar, seat of the Imperial Tribunal of the Empire, 35; taken by Hoche (1796), 186; merged in the electorate of Mayence (1803), 225.

White Terror in France in 1815, 356, 357.

Wickham, William, English diplomatist (1768–1845), 166, 167, 182.

Widdin, the Pasha of, defeated at Foksany (1789), 45.

Wieland, Christoph Martin, German poet (1733–1813), 38.

William V., Prince of Orange, and Stadtholder of the United Netherlands (1748–1806), 31, 32, 149, 179, 227.

—— VI., Prince of Orange, and I. King of the Netherlands (1772–1843), 314, 320, 321, 344.

—— Prince Royal, afterwards King, of Würtemburg (1781–1864), 337.

—— IX., Landgrave, afterwards Elector and Grand Duke of Hesse-Cassel (1743–1821), 6, 38, 157, 225, 227, 250, 258, 337; made a Grand Duke and member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342.

—— Prince, of Prussia, afterwards German Emperor (1797–1888), 337.

Wilson, Sir Robert Thomas, English general (1777–1849), 301.

Wintzingerode, Ferdinand, Baron, Russian general (1770–1818), 319, 320, 328, 338.

Wissembourg, lines of, stormed by the Austrians (1793), 139.

Wittenberg, ceded to Prussia by Saxony (1815), 341.

Wittgenstein, Louis Adolphus Peter, Prince of Sayn-, Russian general (1769–1843), 309.

Wolf, Frederick Augustus, German scholar (1759–1824), 304.

Wolkonski, Nicholas, Prince Repnin-, Russian general (1778–1845), 337.

Worms, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34; one of the chief princes in Alsace, 79.

—— city of, headquarters of Condé’s army of French _émigrés_, 106; taken by Custine, 118.

Worship of Reason at Paris (1793), 142.

—— of the Supreme Being, 146.

Wrede, Charles Philip, Prince von, Bavarian general (1767–1838), 338.

Würmser, Dagobert Sigismund, Count, Austrian general (1724–97), 40, 130, 139, 140, 175, 176.

Würtemburg, duchy of, condition in 1789, 37, 38; invaded by Moreau (1796), 180; made an electorate (1803), 225; receives extension of territory, 227; invaded by Napoleon (1805), 244; made a kingdom (1806), 245; receives Austrian Swabia, 258; state of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. _See_ Charles Eugène, Frederick, Frederick Eugène.

Würtzburg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 35.

Würtzburg, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227; exchanged for Salzburg (1809), and made a Grand Duchy, 260; a state of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260.

—— city of, taken by Jourdan (1796), 177.

York, Frederick, Duke of, English general (1763–1827), 39, 127, 130, 140, 205.

—— von Wartenburg, John David Louis, Count, Prussian general (1759–1830), 308.

Zettin, taken by the Austrians (1790), 88.

Zielence, battle of (18 June 1792), 122.

Zubov, Prince Plato, Russian statesman (1767–1822), 221.

Zug, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228.

Zurich, battle of (26 Sept. 1799), 204.

—— canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228; made one of the presiding cantons of the Helvetian Diet (1815), 345.

Zweibrücken. _See_ Deux-Ponts.

+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | FOOTNOTES: | | | | [1] _Joseph II. und Leopold von Toscana._ By the Ritter von | | Arneth: Vienna, 1872. | | | | [2] Vehse’s _Memoirs of the Court, Aristocracy, and Diplomacy | | of Austria_, English translation. London, 1856, vol. ii. p. 305. | | | | [3] _Memoirs of the Court Aristocracy and Diplomacy of | | Austria_, by E. Vehse, translated by Franz Demmler. London: | | 1856, vol. ii. p. 334. | | | | [4] _L’Europe et la Révolution Française_, by Albert Sorel, | | vol. ii. p. 50. | | | | [5] _A History of the French Revolution_, by H. Morse Stephens. | | Vol. i., chapter i. gives a detailed account of the method of | | election. | | | | [6] On Mirabeau’s proposed Ministries, see _A History of the | | French Revolution_, by H. Morse Stephens, vol. i., pp. 246 and | | 247. | | | | [7] Sorel, _L’Europe et la Révolution Française_, vol. ii. p. | | 69. | | | | [8] Sorel, _L’Europe et la Révolution Française_, vol. ii. p. | | 194, footnote. | | | | [9] Coxe’s _Hist. of House of Austria_, ed. 1847, vol. iii. p. | | 552, footnote. | | | | [10] _Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807: Diplomatische | | Correspondenzen._ Ed. by P. Bailleu, vol. i. p. 41. | | | | [11] Bailleu, _op. cit._ vol. i. p. 48. | | | | [12] Alison’s _Lives of Lord Castlereagh, and Sir Charles | | Stewart_, vol. ii p. 241. | | | | [13] Fain, _Manuscrit de l’An_ 1813, pp. 297, 298. | | | | [14] Las Cases, _Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène_, vol. vii. pp. 56, | | 57. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+

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Transcriber’s Notes:

- Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - Text enclosed by equals is in bold font (=bold=). - Blank pages have been removed. - Advertisements have been moved to the back. - Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. - Some spelling and hyphenation variations have been made consistent. - Appendix tables left split over two pages due to excessive width.