Part 31
The more closely the subject of the evils affecting the sanitary condition of the labouring population is investigated the more widely do their effects appear to be ramified. The pecuniary cost of noxious agencies is measured by data within the province of the actuary, by the charges attendant on the reduced duration of life, and the reduction of the periods of working ability or production by sickness; the cost would include also much of the public charge of attendant vice and crime which come within the province of the police, as well as the destitution which comes within the province of the administrators of relief. Of the pecuniary effects, including the cost of maintenance during the preventible sickness, any estimate approximating to exactness could only be obtained by very great labour, which does not appear to be necessary.
To whatever extent the probable duration of the life of the working-man is diminished by noxious agencies, I repeat a truism in stating that to some extent so much productive power is lost; and in the case of destitute widowhood and orphanage, burdens are created and cast either on the industrious survivors belonging to the family, or on the contributors to the poor’s rates during the whole of the period of the failure of such ability. With the view to judge of the extent to which such burdens are at present cast upon the poor’s rates, I have endeavoured to ascertain the average age at which death befell the heads of those families of children who with the mothers have been relieved on the ground of destitution, in eight of the unions where the average age of the mortality prevalent amongst the several classes of the community has been ascertained.
The workmen who belong to sick-clubs and benefit-societies generally fix the period of their own superannuation allowances at from 60 to 65 years of age. I see no reason to doubt that by the removal of noxious agencies not essential to their trades; by sanitary measures affecting their dwellings, combined with improvements in their own habits, the period of ability for productive labour might be extended to the whole of the labouring class.
The actual duration of the ability for labour will vary with the nature of the work, though there can be little doubt that the variations under proper precautions would be much less than those which now take place. From the information received in respect to the employment of tailors in large numbers, it is evident that the average period of the working ability of that class might be extended at least ten years by improvements as to the places of work alone. The experience which might serve to indicate the extent of practicable improvement is at present narrow and scattered. The chief English insurance tables, such as the Northampton and Carlisle tables, are made up apparently from the experience of a population, subject probably to a greater or less extent to the noxious influences which are shown to be removable. By the Carlisle table, however, the probability of life to every person who has attained the age of twenty-one—the age for marriage—would be 40 years, or 40·75. By the Swedish tables, which are frequently applied to the insurance of the labouring classes, it would be 38·0. The observations that have been made on the subject, show that marriage improves rather than diminishes the probability of life. Where the duration of life is reduced by the nature of the employment below the usual average, by so much the widowhood may be considered as increased, as also the orphanage of their children. As labouring men generally marry early in life, their wives have ceased to bear children before they have reached fifty, so that the great mass of orphanage may be assigned to the consequence of premature death. The following table shows the average ages at which the deaths occurred of the fathers of the widows’ orphan children who are in receipt of relief in the following unions. The average includes the cases of all who died at whatever ages, whether above or below sixty:—
┌─────────────────────┬────────┬───────┬────────┬───────┬───────┬───────┐ │ Unions. │ Number │ │ Number │ │ │ │ │ │ of │ │ of │ │ │ │ │ │Husbands│ │Husbands│ │ │ │ │ │ dying │Average│ dying │Average│ │ │ │ │ under │Age at │ above │Age at │ Total │Average│ │ │ 60. │Death. │ 60. │Death. │Deaths.│ Age. │ ├─────────────────────┼────────┼───────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┤ │Manchester │ 718│ 42│ 432│ 69│ 1150│ 52│ │Whitechapel │ 351│ 44│ 239│ 69│ 590│ 54│ │Bethnal Green │ 250│ 44│ 195│ 69│ 445│ 55│ │Strand │ 157│ 42│ 63│ 66│ 220│ 49│ │Oakham & Uppingham │ 136│ 45│ 118│ 71│ 257│ 57│ │Alston-with-Garrigill│ 69│ 45│ 20│ 66│ 89│ 50│ │Bath │ 66│ 38│ 1│ 60│ 67│ 39│ └─────────────────────┴────────┴───────┴────────┴───────┴───────┴───────┘
This premature widowhood and orphanage is the source of the most painful descriptions of pauperism—the most difficult to deal with; it is the source of a constant influx of the independent into the pauperised and permanently dependent classes. The widow, where there are children, generally remains a permanent charge; re-marriages amongst those who have children are very rare; in some unions they do not exceed one case in twenty or thirty. By the time the children are fit for labour and cease to require the parents’ attention, the mothers frequently become unfit for earning their own livelihood, or habituated to dependence, and without care to emerge from it. Even where the children are by good training and education fitted for productive industry, when they marry, the early familiarity with the parochial relief makes them improvident, and they fall back upon the poor’s rates on the lying-in of their wives, on their sickness, and for aid on every emergency. In every district the poor’s rolls form the pedigrees of generations of families thus pauperized. The total number of orphan children on account of whose destitution relief was given from the poor’s rates in the year ended Lady-day, 1840, was 112,000.
The numbers of widows chargeable to the poor’s rates was in those unions at that period 43,000. The following abstract of the returns from the eight unions selected exhibit the proportions who become chargeable at different periods of the head of the family.
_Premature Deaths: Age of Widowhood in various Unions._
┌───────────┬─────────────────╥─────────────────╥─────────────────┐ │ Ages. │Manchester Union.║ Whitechapel ║ Bethnal Green. │ │ │ ║ Union. ║ │ ├───────────┼────────┬────────╫────────┬────────╫────────┬────────┤ │ │ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of │ │ │Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan │ │ │ who │Children║ who │Children║ who │Children│ │ │ Died. │ ║ Died. │ ║ Died. │ │ ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 20–25 │ 11│ 20║ 7│ 12║ 2│ 3│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 25–30 │ 56│ 126║ 17│ 40║ 9│ 19│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 30–35 │ 108│ 317║ 31│ 85║ 25│ 89│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 35–40 │ 108│ 333║ 42│ 114║ 40│ 137│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 40–45 │ 126│ 361║ 63│ 201║ 40│ 153│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 45–50 │ 112│ 302║ 61│ 178║ 44│ 105│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 50–55 │ 100│ 183║ 78│ 137║ 45│ 107│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 55–60 │ 97│ 138║ 51│ 37║ 45│ 54│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 60–65 │ 147│ 148║ 87│ 46║ 53│ 35│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 65–70 │ 96│ 60║ 48│ 18║ 52│ 17│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 70–75 │ 87│ 55║ 54│ 8║ 57│ 7│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 75–80 │ 60│ 22║ 25│ 4║ 24│ 8│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 80–85 │ 35│ 4║ 17│ 2║ 7│ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 85–90 │ 5│ ║ 7│ 3║ 2│ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 90–95 │ 1│ ║ 2│ ║ │ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 95–100 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 100–105 │ 1│ ║ │ ║ │ │ ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ │ Totals │ 1150│ 2069║ 590│ 885║ 445│ 734│ ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ │No. │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ receiving│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ Relief │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ previous │ 199│ ║ 80│ ║ │ │ │ to │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ husband’s│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ death │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ └───────────┴────────┴────────╨────────┴────────╨────────┴────────┘
┌───────────┬─────────────────╥─────────────────╥─────────────────┐ │ Ages. │ Strand Union. ║ Oakham & ║ Alston with │ │ │ ║Uppingham Unions.║ Garrigill. │ ├───────────┼────────┬────────╫────────┬────────╫────────┬────────┤ │ │ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of │ │ │Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan │ │ │ who │Children║ who │Children║ who │Children│ │ │ Died. │ ║ Died. │ ║ Died. │ │ ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 20–25 │ 1│ 4║ │ ║ 1│ 2│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 25–30 │ 11│ 19║ 12│ 25║ 5│ 12│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 30–35 │ 23│ 70║ 8│ 36║ 4│ 16│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 35–40 │ 20│ 69║ 19│ 71║ 6│ 24│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 40–45 │ 35│ 81║ 24│ 68║ 12│ 58│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 45–50 │ 23│ 58║ 19│ 50║ 18│ 84│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 50–55 │ 24│ 34║ 30│ 60║ 9│ 30│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 55–60 │ 20│ 17║ 24│ 36║ 14│ 11│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 60–65 │ 25│ 17║ 26│ 15║ 13│ 4│ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 65–70 │ 15│ 13║ 26│ 13║ 1│ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 70–75 │ 13│ ║ 32│ 10║ 4│ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 75–80 │ 5│ 2║ 22│ 4║ 1│ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 80–85 │ 5│ ║ 11│ 6║ 1│ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 85–90 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 90–95 │ │ ║ 1│ ║ │ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 95–100 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ 100–105 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ │ Totals │ 220│ 384║ 254│ 394║ 89│ 241│ ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ │No. │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ receiving│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ Relief │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ previous │ 37│ ║ 11│ ║ 27│ │ │ to │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ husband’s│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ │ death │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ └───────────┴────────┴────────╨────────┴────────╨────────┴────────┘
┌───────────┬─────────────────╥─────────────────┐ │ Ages. │ Bath Union. ║ Total. │ │ │ ║ │ ├───────────┼────────┬────────╫────────┬────────┤ │ │ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of │ │ │Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan │ │ │ who │Children║ who │Children│ │ │ Died. │ ║ Died. │ │ ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 20–25 │ │ ║ 22│ 41│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 25–30 │ 9│ 28║ 119│ 269│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 30–35 │ 13│ 52║ 212│ 665│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 35–40 │ 12│ 52║ 247│ 800│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 40–45 │ 18│ 84║ 318│ 1006│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 45–50 │ 9│ 37║ 286│ 814│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 50–55 │ 4│ 15║ 290│ 566│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 55–60 │ 1│ 6║ 252│ 299│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 60–65 │ 1│ 4║ 352│ 269│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 65–70 │ │ ║ 238│ 121│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 70–75 │ │ ║ 247│ 80│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 75–80 │ │ ║ 137│ 40│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 80–85 │ │ ║ 76│ 12│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 85–90 │ │ ║ 14│ 3│ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 90–95 │ │ ║ 4│ │ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 95–100 │ │ ║ │ │ │ │ │ ║ │ │ │ 100–105 │ │ ║ 1│ │ ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ │ Totals │ 67│ 278║ 2815│ 4985│ ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ │No. │ │ ║ │ │ │ receiving│ │ ║ │ │ │ Relief │ │ ║ │ │ │ previous │ │ ║ │ │ │ to │ │ ║ │ │ │ husband’s│ │ ║ │ │ │ death │ │ ║ │ │ └───────────┴────────┴────────╨────────┴────────┘
Total Deaths below 60 years of age ... 1746
Of the whole number it appears that upwards of 1764 became chargeable by premature deaths. If the same rule obtains in the other unions, which could only be ascertained by a very long and expensive inquiry, then nearly 27,000 cases of premature widowhood, and more than 100,000 cases of orphanage may be ascribed to removable causes. The chief effects or the chief of the diseases which appear as consequents to the circumstances under which the labouring population of the several districts have been described as living, and under which the fathers of the orphan children above enumerated have died, are set forth in the following table:—
Table of the Chief Causes of Death producing Widowhood and Orphanage in the under-mentioned Unions and Parishes.
┌──────────────┬──────────┬───────────┬───────┬───────┬─────────┐ │ │ │ │Bethnal│ │ Oakham │ │DISEASES, &c. │Manchester│Whitechapel│ Green │Strand │ and │ │ │ Union. │ Union. │Parish.│Union. │Uppingham│ │ │ │ │ │ │ Unions. │ ├──────────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┤ │ │ No of │ No of │ No of │ No of │ No of │ │ │ Deaths. │ Deaths. │Deaths.│Deaths.│ Deaths. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┤ │Respiratory │ 500│ 212│ 147│ 95│ 69│ │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Epidemic, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Endemic and │ 146│ 65│ 73│ 28│ 34│ │ Contagious │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Digestive │ 60│ 16│ 10│ 10│ 14│ │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Nervous │ 74│ 41│ 38│ 17│ 25│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Violent Deaths│ 94│ 44│ 20│ 16│ 23│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Old Age │ 84│ 104│ 46│ 13│ 47│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Other │ 129│ 68│ 104│ 32│ 36│ │ Diseases[29]│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Undescribed │ 63│ 40│ 7│ 9│ 6│ ├──────────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┤ │ Total │ 1150│ 590│ 445│ 220│ 254│ └──────────────┴──────────┴───────────┴───────┴───────┴─────────┘
┌──────────────┬─────────┬───────┬─────────────────────────┐ │ │ Alston │ │ │ │DISEASES, &c. │ with │ Bath │ Total. │ │ │Garrigill│Union. │ │ │ │ Parish. │ │ │ ├──────────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┬────────┬────────┤ │ │ No of │ No of │ No of │Average │ No. of │ │ │ Deaths. │Deaths.│Deaths.│ Age of │Orphans.│ │ │ │ │ │Decease.│ │ ├──────────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼────────┤ │Respiratory │ 47│ 40│ 1110│ 51│ 2218│ │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Epidemic, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Endemic and │ 9│ 4│ 359│ 46│ 862│ │ Contagious │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Digestive │ 5│ 3│ 118│ 54│ 180│ │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Nervous │ 3│ 5│ 203│ 55│ 296│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Violent Deaths│ 13│ 5│ 215│ 46│ 508│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Old Age │ 5│ │ 299│ 74│ 56│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Other │ 7│ 8│ 384│ 54│ 694│ │ Diseases[29]│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Undescribed │ │ 2│ 127│ 47│ 171│ ├──────────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼────────┤ │ Total │ 89│ 67│ 2815│ 53│ 4985│ └──────────────┴─────────┴───────┴───────┴────────┴────────┘
As an example of the mode in which the causes of premature deaths fall, and of the burdens they entail in many districts, I submit a return of the whole of the cases of widowhood on the pauper rolls of the parish of Alston and Garrigill, Cumberland, the parish in which are situate the lodging-houses described in the evidence collected by _Dr. Mitchell_.
ALSTON WITH GARRIGILL PARISH.
Number of Widows, and Children dependent upon them, in receipt of Relief in the above Parish; Age of Husband at Death; and the alleged Cause of Death.