Part 3
In Axbridge union, Somerset 10
In Chippenham union, Wilts 11
In Bedford union, Bedford 12
In Woburn union, Bedford 12
In Ampthill union, Bedford 12
In Bishop Stortford union, Hertford 12
In Witham union, Essex 13
In Windsor, Berks 13
In Epping union, Essex 14
In West Ham union, Essex 14
In Bromley union, Kent 14
In Bilston, Leicester 15
In Stafford (town of), Stafford, 16
In Macclesfield union, Chester 17
In Heaton Norris, Stockport union, Chester 17
In West Derby union, Lancaster 18
In Wigan union, Lancaster 19
In Durham (city of), Durham 20
In Barnard Castle, Durham 20
In Carlisle, Cumberland 21
In Gateshead, Durham 21
Condition of the Border peasantry 22
In Lochmaben, Scotland 23
In Glasgow and Edinburgh 23
II. PUBLIC ARRANGEMENTS, EXTERNAL TO THE RESIDENCES, BY WHICH THE SANITARY CONDITION OF THE LABOURING POPULATION IS AFFECTED— 25
Drainage.
_Town drainage of streets and houses._ 26
Instances of the effects on the public health of the neglect of town drainage—
At Derby 26
At Stockport 28
Comparative mortality in two similar towns, one drained, the other undrained—
At Beccles and Bungay, Suffolk 28
State of town cleansing at Leeds 29
At Tamworth 30
At Knutton and Chesterton, Stafford, &c. 30
At Liverpool 30
At Brighton 31
At Birmingham 32
At Edinburgh 33
At Tranent and Ayr 33
At Stirling 34
At Clitheroe, Lancashire 35
_Street and road cleansing—road pavements._ 36
Defective from want of skill or proper combination of means 36
Different influence on the public health of paved and unpaved streets, instance of, in Portsmouth 37
Instance of the effect on the public health of street cleansing in Macclesfield 37
Instances of the neglect of street cleansing—
In Manchester 38
In Leeds 39
Instances of the consequences on the public health of the neglect of road cleansing in rural districts in England and in Scotland 42
Discipline in respect to cleanliness of the army superior to the civic economy of the towns 44
_House cleansing as connected with street cleansing and sewerage._
Instances of the sanitary condition of houses in the metropolis where the cesspools do not communicate with the drains 45
Small value of refuse in London, in consequence of the expense of cartage 46
Effects on the health of the accumulation of refuse near the residences of the labouring classes: examples in
Greenock 46
Leeds 47
Cleansing by means of water-closets applicable to the poorer districts as being the most economical 48
Instance of the removal of the refuse of the city of Edinburgh by sewerage, and of its application to agriculture by irrigation 48
Objections by the citizens of Edinburgh to irrigation by sewers in the immediate vicinity of the city 49
Value of the refuse of London, on the scale of value of the refuse of Edinburgh 51
Modifications of the mode of sewerage of Edinburgh, to make a system of cleansing innoxious and profitable, and extend it to the residences of the poorer classes 52
Expense of street cleansing in Manchester 53
Defects of the prevalent mode of removing the refuse of houses by cartage, or otherwise than by sewerage 54
Instances of defective construction of sewers 55
Evidence on the action of improved modes of sewerage 55
Effects of different descriptions of streets upon the public health 59
Proposed mode of cleansing streets by sweeping the refuse into the sewers 60
Similar mode proposed of cleansing Paris 61
_Supplies of water._ 63
Necessity of improved supplies of water for house and street cleansing 63
Instances of the want of water in the houses, and of the effect on the personal and domestic habits of the lower classes of the population in towns 63
In Manchester, 64; in Truro union, 65; in Audley district of Newcastle-under-Lyme union, 65; in Dunmow union, 65; in Bishops Stortford union, 65; in Lexden and Winstree union, 65; in Wootton, Bedford, 66; in Edinburgh, 66; in Glasgow, 66; in Aberdeen, 67; in Stirling, 67; in Dundee, 67; in Greenock, 67; in Ayr, 67; in Arbroath, 67; in Renfrew, 68; in Dunfermline, 68; in Tain, 68; in Tranent 68
Inapplicability of the supplies of water to be obtained by fetching from the public wells 69
The supplies of water in London by machinery and pipes, and in Paris by cartage and hand carriage, compared 70
Cost of laying on water in labourers’ tenements and the economy of supply in such a mode 71
Supplies of water by private companies, not applicable to rural districts of small population 72
Complaints against the modes of supplies of water by private companies 72
Private companies do not ensure the best practicable supplies to the public 73
Instance of supplies of water obtained by the public without private companies 74
Necessity of general provisions of supplies of water 77
Unwholesome effects of bad water 77
_Sanitary effect of land drainage._ 80
General land drainage, effects of, on the health of the population, instances of in—
The Isle of Ely, 80; the Newhaven union, 81; the Ongar union, 81; the Gravesend and Milton union, 81; the Eastry union, 81 and 82; the Dunmow union, 82; the Epping union 82
Instances of—
In Scotland 83
Instances of the effect of land drainage upon the health of cattle 83
Instance of the effects of land floods and deficient land drainage in—
The Langport union, 85; the Chesterfield union, 87; the Dore union, 87; the Bicester union, 88; the Leighton Buzzard union, 88; the Foleshill union, 89; the Malton union, 89; Lochmaben, Scotland 90
Foreign illustrations of the effect of drainage upon the health of the population 90
Interests opposed to the cleansing of Paris 93
Class similar to the Chiffoniers found in English towns 94
Their personal habits 95
Collateral benefit of more effectual cleansing of towns in diminishing degrading employments 96
III. CIRCUMSTANCES CHIEFLY IN THE INTERNAL ECONOMY AND BAD VENTILATION OF PLACES OF WORK; WORKMEN’S LODGING-HOUSES, DWELLINGS, AND THE DOMESTIC HABITS AFFECTING THE HEALTH OF THE LABOURING CLASSES. 98
Various effects of overcrowding places of work, as shown in the case of one class of workmen 98
Comparative ease and economy of measures of prevention rather than of relief 104
Sanitary effects of ventilation on workpeople at Glasgow 107
Effects of defective ventilation on the health of milliners and dressmakers in the metropolis 107
Instances of the effects of defective ventilation of sleeping rooms of the working classes 108
Effects of the defective economy of lodging-houses and places of repose exemplified in the duration of life of one class of workmen 112
Instances of errors in respect to the sanitary effects of particular occupations 113
Injurious effects of deficient ventilation in schools 119
_Bad ventilation and overcrowding private houses._ 120
Great apparent increase in the proportionate number of houses according to the last census attributable to a different mode of making the return 120
Instances of great overcrowding in cottages in—
Greenock, 121; Tranent, 121; Sleaford union 122
_The want of separate apartments and overcrowding of private dwellings._ 122
Effects of the overcrowding of private dwellings on the morals of the population, instances of, in—
The Ampthill union, 122; the Leighton Buzzard union, 123; the Bicester union, 123; the Romsey union, 123; among the border peasantry, 124; in Manchester, Liverpool, Ashton-under-Lyne, and Hull, 124; in Leeds, 126; in Nottingham, 126; in Clitheroe 126
Instances of the injurious influences of bad tenements upon the personal condition and moral habits of the inmates 128
Effects of noxious agencies in preventing frugality and promoting intemperance 129
In preventing the influence of education 132
Force of habits of intemperance in the use of spirituous liquors against all habits of decency, or frugality, or morality 133
Misconceptions as to casualties occurring among the indigent or profligate 134
Intemperance the cause of fever 136
_Domestic mismanagement a predisposing cause of disease._ 137
Mismanagement of earnings obstructive to the domestic improvement of the sanitary condition of the labouring classes.
Instances of in—
Derby, 137; Birmingham, 138; Manchester, 139; Preston union, 140; Ayr, 141; Tranent, 141; Dundee 142
Attacks of fever most frequent on workmen in full employment and ordinary health 145, 147
Irrelevancy of controversy on the generation of fever, in respect to practical means of prevention 148
Concurrence of medical opinions as to the most efficient means of preventing fever 150
IV. COMPARATIVE CHANCES OF LIFE IN DIFFERENT CLASSES OF THE COMMUNITY. 153
Instances of the comparative chances of life amongst the gentry, tradesmen, and working men—
In Truro, 154; in Derby, 155; in Manchester, 157; in Rutland, 157; in the Bolton union, 158; in Bethnal Green, 159; in Leeds Borough, 159; in Liverpool, 159; in the Whitechapel union, 160; in the Strand union, 160; in the Kensington union, 161; in Wiltshire, 161; in the Kendal union 161
Tabular views of the ages at which deaths have occurred in different classes of society 162
Comparative mortality of differently circumstanced districts of the metropolis 164
Comparative prevalence of fever in different districts of Leith 167
High mortality not essential to towns 167
Comparative mortality in three classes of the community at Bath 168
Corroborative experience from Paris as to the influence of local circumstances on mortality 170
Improvements in the health of large towns chiefly confined to improved districts 171
Instance of progressive improvement in the social condition of the population concurrently with its increase in numbers 175
Prevalence of disease no evidence of the pressure of population on food 177
Variations of the proportion of deaths and births in different districts of the same town 178
Proportion of births to the population greatest where there is the greatest mortality 179
Proof that pestilence or excessive mortality does not diminish population 182
Numbers merely not the test of strength or prosperity of a community 185
Deterioration of the strength of the population by disease without diminishing its numbers 185
Increase of food or production concurrently with the increase of population 188
V. PECUNIARY BURDENS CREATED BY THE NEGLECT OF SANITARY MEASURES:— 188
Cost of remedies for sickness and of mortality which is preventible 188
Average ages of death of the heads of families of widows and orphans chargeable to the Manchester, Whitechapel, Bethnal Green, Strand, Oakham and Uppingham, Alston with Garrigill, and Bath unions 190
Table of the number of widows and dependent orphans chargeable in eight unions 191
Table of the chief cause of death producing widowhood and orphanage in eight unions 192
Detailed instances of the causes of widowhood and orphanage in Alston with Garrigill 193
Examples of the sanitary effects of superior care in the residences and the places of work of labourers—in the Reeth union, North York, 196; in Gwennap, Illogan, and Camborne, Cornwall, 198; in Great Bradford and Horton, West York 199
Comparison of a young population under favourable and a mature population under unfavourable circumstances 200
Effects of noxious physical agencies on the moral and intellectual condition of the working classes 202
Jurisprudential measures for the prevention of deaths from accidents 203
Cost of disease as compared with cost of prevention, instances of in Glasgow and Dundee 206
VI. EVIDENCE OF THE EFFECTS OF PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN RAISING THE STANDARD OF HEALTH AND THE CHANCES OF LIFE:— 211
Former health of gaols as compared with the present state 211
Effects of sanitary measures of prevention on the health of prisoners 214
Comparison of the experience of sickness amongst different classes of people 216
Amount of sickness experienced by the labouring classes 217
Defects of Insurance tables 218
Effects of sanitary measures in the prevention of disease in the army and navy 219
_Cost to tenants and owners of the public measures for drainage, cleansing, and the supplies of water, as compared with the cost of sickness_:— 222
Cost of measures of prevention as compared with the cost of sickness and mortality 222
Means of payment for improved accommodation 227
Impolicy of exemptions of tenements from proper charges 229
Injurious effects of exemptions of labourers’ tenements 230
Inability of workmen to improve their own condition 231
Necessity of extrinsic aid for the improvement of the condition of the working classes 232
_Employers’ influence on the health of workpeople, by means of improved habitations_:— 233
Advantages to labourers of holding tenements in connexion with their employments 233
Instance of a superior moral and sanitary condition enjoyed by workers in a cotton factory 236
Elevation of a manufacturing population by improvements in the condition of their dwellings 238
Most advantageous construction of manufactories for the health of the workpeople 240
_The employers’ influence on the health of workpeople_:— 245
By modes of payment which do not lead to temptations to intemperance 245
By the promotion of personal cleanliness 253
By the ventilation of the places of work and the prevention of noxious fumes, dust, &c. 256
By promoting respectability in dress 261
Employers’ or owners’ influence in the improvement of habitations and sanitary arrangements for the protection of the labouring classes in the rural districts 261
Instances of, in the Bedford Union, 262; Stafford Union, 263, in Norfolk and Suffolk, 264; at Harlaxton, Lincolnshire, 266; at the Earl of Rosebery’s estate, Scotland, 266; at Closeburn, Dumfries, 266; Turton and Bollington, Lancashire, 267; Birmingham 267
Instances of the influence of the materials used in building upon the health of the inmates in Cheshire, Lancashire, Buckingham and Berkshire 267
Instances of efficient improvements in the detail of labourers’ dwellings in Scotland 270
Improvements proposed for the construction of the dwellings of the lower classes in towns 272
_Effects of public walks and gardens on the health and morals of the lower classes of the population_ 275
VII. RECOGNISED PRINCIPLES OF LEGISLATION AND STATE OF THE EXISTING LAW FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH:— 279
Necessity of legislative interference for the protection of the health of the population 279
Spread of old evils in unprotected new districts by inefficient legislation 280
Dangers of increased charges for inefficient sanitary measures shifting without improving the population 282
Expulsion of labourers from old tenements without providing appropriate new ones, not invariably beneficial 286
Advantages in the regulation of the sites of dwellings 287
_General state of the law for the protection of the public health_:— 288
Medical police in Germany 288
Existing laws for the protection of the public health in England 289
Early state of the law for the protection of the public health 291
_State of the special authorities for reclaiming the execution of the laws for the protection of the public health_:— 296
General desuetude of the laws for the protection of the public health 296
State of the administration of the laws for the protection of the public health, by court leets and local trusts 299
_State of the local executive authorities for the erection and maintenance of drains and other works for the protection of the public health_:— 302
State of the obstructions to land drainage and works of private profit redounding to the public health 302
Injuries to private property as well as to the public health, occasioned by defective administration 305
Continuance of the causes of disease in the face of representations of their effects on the population 307
Areas of jurisdiction for drainage inconsistent with efficient operations 309
Prevalent misconceptions as to the objects and state of management of existing sewerage 311
Objections made to the existing local administration of the sewers’ rate 315
Securities requisite to obviate opposition to new expenditure for sewerage 316
Necessity of the subordinate drainage of private tenements being comprehended as part of one system 319
Disturbing local interests opposed to efficient management of expenditure in new districts 322
Obstacles arising from defective local arrangements for efficient expenditure in local public works 323