Part 15

[111] Granger, _Worship of the Romans_, p. 277.

[112] Howitt, in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, xiii., p. 192.

[113] James Adair, _Hist. of the North Am. Indians_, p. 54.

[114] Prof. Sayce in _Hibbert Lectures_, p. 305.

[115] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva España_, lib. i., _passim_; _Popol Vuh_, cap. i.; Stoll, _Ethnographie der Rep. Guatemala_, p. 118.

[116] Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_, p. 6.

[117] Comp. W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, p. 41.

[118] _Select Works of St. Ephrem_, p. 122. (Trans. by the Rev. J. B. Morris.) The name of Jesus was regarded by the early church as magical in itself. Arnobius says of him, “whose Name, when heard, puts to flight evil spirits, imposes silence on soothsayers, prevents men from consulting the augurs, and frustrates the efforts of magicians.”—_Adversus Gentes_, lib. i., cap. 46.

[119] See Stoll, _Suggestion und Hypnotismus_, p. 14, _seq._

[120] The _pĕtara_ of the Borneans is at times used as a personal name of the chief divine being, at others in the vague sense of “duty” or “supernatural.” Ling Roth, _Natives of Sarawak_, vol. i., 179. Analogous instances have already been mentioned.

[121] _Indian Sign Language_, p. 309.

[122] Sir George Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 164.

[123] Hyades et Deniker, _Mission Scientifique au Cap Horn_, p. 376. Earlier voyagers write: “They certainly have ideas of a spiritual existence.”—_Narrative of the Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle_, vol. ii., p. 179.

[124] _Ancient Nahuatl Poetry_ (Philadelphia, 1890); _Rig Veda Americanus_ (Philadelphia, 1890).

[125] Dr. W. Matthews, _The Mountain Chant of the Navahoes_, p. 465.

[126] Clark, _Indian Sign Language_, p. 309.

[127] Sahagun, _Hist. de Nueva España_, lib. vi. Other examples are given by this writer.

[128] _Encyclopédie des Sciences Religieuses_, s. v. Prière.

[129] Other forms are _tapui_, to make sacred; _tabui_, to keep from; _tabuaki_, to bless. Here, as elsewhere, there is a synonomy between “sacred” or “holy” and “accursed,” because it is accursed to defile that which is holy. Another, and less probable, derivation is given by Frazer, in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, s. v. “Taboo.” He is perfectly right, however, in saying that the original form of the _tabu_ is due, not to its civil, but to its religious element.

[130] Klemm, _Culturgeschichte_, vol. ii., pp. 368, _sq._, after Steller, who visited Kamschatka about 1740.

[131] Man, in _Jour. Anthrop. Society_, vol. xii., pp. 159, 173.

[132] Authorities above quoted, and Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 95.

[133] For abundant examples of the _tabu_ in various nations see Frazer’s article in the _Encyc. Britannica_ above referred to.

[134] _Religion of the Semites_, p. 18.

[135] Filling in manuscript, he says, seventy-seven quarto volumes, and far from exhausting the supply! _Bushman Folk-lore_, p. 6. (London, 1875.)

[136] Man, _ubi supra_, p. 172.

[137] Morice, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada_, 1892, p. 125.

[138] This branch of the subject has been fully discussed by Keary, _Outlines of Prim. Belief_, Preface and chapter i.; and Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, _passim_.

[139] See _Myths of the New World_, chap. iii.; also, an article on symbolism in ancient American art, by Prof. Putnam and Mr. Willoughby in _Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Science_, vol. xliv., p. 302.

[140] I have presented this subject with greater detail in an article “On the Origin of Sacred Numbers” in the _American Anthropologist_, April, 1894. The contrast of symbolism of the three and the four is familiar to students. Such a popular text-book as Keil’s _Manual of Biblical Archæology_ states that four was the predominating number in the temples, altars, and rites of the ancient world, it being, “according to an idea common to all antiquity, the symbol of the cosmos”; while the three was “the mark of the Divine Being in His various manifestations” (pp. 127, 128).

[141] Westcott, _Symbolism of Numbers_, p. 7. I have given several examples of triple or triune deities in America in _Myths of the New World_, pp. 84, 187, 188. From other fields I may note the triad Kane, Ku, and Lono of Hawaii (Fornander, _Polynesian Race_, vol. i., p. 61); that on the Marquesas objectively represented by three sticks tied together (Dr. Tautain, in _L’Anthropologie_, tom. vii., p. 544); the triad of Tangaloa, Creator, Maui, Sustainer, and Tiki, Revealer, elsewhere in Polynesia (Hale, _Ethnog. and Philol._, p. 24).

[142] Numerous examples are collected in L. L. Conant, _The Number Concept_, chap. ii.

[143] In the Quiche and Tzental dialects.

[144] From the verb _tumpa_, to forge. Ling Roth, _Natives of Sarawak_, vol. i., p. 165.

[145] The Tinné of British America have the word _Nayéweri_, he who creates by thought (Petitot, _Les Dené Dindjie_, p. 63); the Algonquian Kitché Manito created the world “by an act of his will” (Schoolcraft, _Oneóta_, p. 342). For the Zuñians, see Cushing, _Zuñi Creation Myths_, p. 379; for the Polynesians, Hale, _Ethnography of the U. S. Exploring Expedition_, p. 399, and Fornander, _The Polynesian Race_, vol. i., p. 62.

There is no distinction between these opinions and that of the Christian church, so beautifully expressed by St. Ephrem the Syrian: “At the nod of His will, noiseless and gentle, out of nothing He created all.” (_Select Works_, Translated by Rev. J. B. Morris, p. 185.)

[146] Fornander, _The Polynesian Race_, vol. i., p. 67; _Rel. de la Nouv. France_, 1634, p. 13.

[147] In _Myths of the New World_, ch. vii. (first ed., 1868). Numerous writers, Klee, Andree, Lucas, etc., have treated the deluge myth with fulness. It is found even among the Mincopies of the Andaman Islands (Man, _u. s._) and is quite common throughout Polynesia (Fornander, _u. s._, vol. i., pp. 88, _sq._). Various Australian tribes record it in detail, Smyth, _The Aborigines of Victoria_, vol. i., p. 430.

[148] Fornander (_u. s._, vol. i., p. 79, _sq._) discusses it in Polynesia. Their “tree of life” was a sacred “tabooed” bread-fruit tree. For America, see _Myths of the New World_, pp. 103-106.

[149] For this reason the works of Delitsch, Haupt, etc., on the question, _Wo lag das Paradies?_, are much less to the point than if their writers had studied the comparative mythology of the subject.

[150] This mythical cycle, as it arose among the native tribes of America, was made by me the special subject of a volume, _American Hero-Myths_ (pp. 251, Philadelphia, 1882).

[151] See my _Essays of an Americanist_, pp. 135-147; J. Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, vol. ii., p. 832; Schrader and Jevons, _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples_, p. 424.

[152] Codrington in _Jour. Anthrop. Soc._, vol. x., p. 285.

[153] Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, Bd. ii., p. 188.

[154] Von Hasselt, in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, Bd. viii., p. 196.

[155] J. G. Pfleiderer, _Die Genesis des Mythus der Indogermanischen Völker_, p. 48.

[156] References in Pietschmann, _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, Bd. x., p. 159, who points out that fetishism should be, as a term, confined to the cult and not applied to the content of a religion.

[157] Rialle, _La Mythologie Comparée_, ch. i.

[158] Prof. Granger remarks that “the influence of the fetish is interpreted as a kind of life of which the fetish is the seat.”—_Worship of the Romans_, p. 201. Bastian defines it as “an incorporation of a subjective emotional state,” and his disciple Achelis recognises that it is not a stadium of religious development. See his _Moderne Völkerkunde_, p. 366.

[159] The insufficiency of animism as a theory of primitive religions has been previously urged by Van Ende, _Histoire Naturelle de la Croyance_, p. 21. Like fetishism and shamanism, animism should be regarded, not as a form or stadium of religion, but, to use Castren’s excellent expression, “nur ein Moment in der Götterlehre.” _Finnische Mythologie_, Einleitung.

[160] Dorsey, _Siouan Cults_, p. 433; the _Popol Vuh_, _passim_.

[161] Hale, _Ethnog. and Philol. of the U. S. Exploring Expd._, p. 55.

[162] E. T. Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 258.

[163] See remarks of W. W. Newell in his introduction to Fanny D. Bergen, _Current Superstitions_ (_Mems. Amer. Folk-lore Society_, vol. iv.).

[164] Klemm, _Culturgeschichte_, Bd. ii., s. 316; Ling Roth, _Natives of Sarawak_, vol. ii., App., p. cxcviii.; Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 154; Curr, _The Australian Race_, vol. ii., p. 48. The moon was sacred to Tina, the chief god of the Etruscans. Müller, _Die Etrusker_, Bd. ii., p. 43. Ně dîdâ, better known as Dido, has been identified with the moon as the leading deity of the Carthaginians and Phœnicians. Otto Meltzer, _Geschichte der Karthager_, Bd. i., s. 128. Danu, the goddess who presided over the Irish pantheon, the _tuatha de Danann_, was the moon (from _daon_, to rise).

[165] Montesinos, _Ancien Perou_, p. 17; Venegas, _Hist of California_, p. 107; Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, vol. i., p. 459.

[166] Brincker in _Globus_, Bd. lxviii., p. 97.

[167] Martin de Leon, _Camino del Cielo_, fol. 101.

[168] Montesinos, _Ancien Perou_, pp. 14-16; Ximenes, _Origen de los Indios de Guatemala_, p. 157.

[169] Sir George Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 5; Egede, _Nachrichten von Grönland_, s. 137.

[170] _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, Bd. ix. The Eskimo called it _Sillam Eipane_, winds-house. Egede, _u. s._

[171] The urn or vase was, in classical antiquity, the emblem of the fecundating waters (Guigniaut, _Religions de l’Antiquité_, tom. i., p. 509). Vases full of water were interred with the dead in Peru to symbolise the life beyond. Meyen, _Die Ureinwohner von Peru_, p. 29.

[172] _Kalewala_, Runa iv.

[173] Probably for this reason the ceremonial law of the Bushmen, especially that relating to puberty and marriage, enjoins “to avoid the wrath of the Water.” Bleek, _Bushman Folk-lore_, p. 18.

[174] Compare Klemm, _Culturgeschichte_, Bd. ii., s. 315 (after Steller), with Man, in _Jour. Anthrop. Soc._, vol. xii., p. 163.

[175] The specific effect of certain colours on the sub-consciousness, and thus on the religious emotions, is practically recognised in sacred art; but so far as I know this has not been made a subject of study by the experimental psychologist. Allowance must always be made for association of ideas; as when the Mozambique negroes paint the images of their bad spirits white, on account of their hatred of Europeans!

[176] Arnobius, _Adversus Gentes_, lib. vii., cap. 49.

[177] Fornander, _The Polynesian Race_, _u. s._; Hale, _Ethnog. and Philol_., p. 25.

[178] Calloway, _Relig. System of the Amazulus_, p. 34; Hahn, _Tsuni ǁGoam_, p. 91; Garcia, _Origen de los Indios_, lib. iv., cap. 26.

[179] _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, vols. v., p. 412, x., p. 280.

[180] They were called _huacanqui_. Montesinos, _Mems. Hist. sur l’ancien Perou_, p. 161.

[181] Garcia, _Origen de los Indios_, lib. iv., cap. 26; Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, lib. vi., cap. 41.

[182] Hale, _Ethnog. and Philol. of the U. S. Explor. Exped._, p. 97.

[183] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 97.

[184] Clark, _Indian Sign Language_, p. 241; Matthews, _Ethnog. of the Hidatsa_, p. 48, etc.

[185] See Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, _passim_.

[186] See, for illustrative examples, my _Primer of Mayan Hieroglyphics_, p. 49, etc.; and comp. Keary, _Outlines of Primitive Belief_, p. 63, _sq._

[187] A. d’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, tome ii., p. 365.

[188] Dorsey, _Siouan Cults_, pp. 390, 455; Alice C. Fletcher in _Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science_, 1895 and 1896; Brinton, _Myths of New World_, pp. 118, 119, and _Nagualism_, pp. 42, 47, 48.

[189] As suggested by E. Bonavia, _Flora of the Assyrian Monuments_ (1894). This is a more likely interpretation than that of Dr. Tylor, that the conical object is the inflorescence of the male date palm; as it is in some bas-reliefs shown presented toward a city gate, a person, etc.

[190] Fechner, _Nana, oder das Seelenleben der Pflanze_.

[191] Curr, _The Australian Race_, vol. ii., p. 199; Palmer in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, vol. xiii., p. 292.

[192] A. d’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, tom. i., p. 240.

[193] A careful discussion of “Höhencultus,” by Baron von Andrian, may be found in the _Bericht der Deutschen Anthrop. Gesellschaft_, August, 1889. He believes the earliest form to have been that of the individualised height; later, that of its cosmic relations.

[194] On the Mexican cave-god, Oztoteotl, see my _Nagualism_, pp. 38-41.

[195] Walcott, _Sacred Archæology_, pp. 233, 236, etc.

[196] Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 59; Ling Roth, _Natives of Sarawak_, vol. ii., App., p. clxx.

[197] M. d’Estrey, in _L’Anthropologie_, tom. iii., pp. 712, _sq._, has made an interesting study of the lizard symbol in Polynesia, to which much could be added from other fields of primitive life.

[198] As Keary well says: “The essence of primitive belief lies not in any likeness to humanity, but in differences from it.” _Outlines of Prim. Belief_, p. 26. The Neo-Platonic doctrine of “emanation” led to the belief that a man might become so filled with the divine essence as to become divine himself. This was the claim of Simon the Magician, who “became confessedly a god to his silly followers,” says Hippolytus in his _Refutation of all Heresies_, bk. vi., cap. 13.

[199] _Die Etrusker_, Bd. ii., s. 111.

[200] Speaking of Jupiter, this fiery preacher exclaims: “Nor is there any kind of baseness in which you do not associate his name with passionate lusts.”—_Adversus Gentes_, lib. v., cap. 22.

[201] Howitt, in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, vol. xiii., pp. 192, 194; vol. xiv., p. 313.

[202] Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, p. 41; Herzog und Plitt, _Real-Encyclopädie für Prot. Theologie_, _s. v._ Gebet, etc.

[203] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 412.

[204] Calloway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, p. 34.

[205] As examples, I may name Unkululu, among the Zulus (Calloway, _Relig. System of the Amazulu_, pp. 40, 43); Singbonga, of the Munga-Kohls (Jellinghaus, in _Zeit. für Ethnologie_, Bd. iii., p. 330); the Hunahpu of the Quiches (_Popol Vuh_, p. 1); the Ahsonnuth of the Navahoes (_8th Rep. Bur. Ethnol._, p. 275); etc. I have discussed the psychic origin of androgynous deities in _The Religious Sentiment_, pp. 66, _sqq._ It was also strong in the early Christian Church, Origen and others of the fathers teaching that the Holy Ghost was the feminine principle in God (C. J. Wood, _Survivals in Christianity_, p. 63).

[206] These were frequent in quite primitive faiths. Some of the priests of ancient Mexico, for example, wholly extirpated the genitalia.—Davila Padilla, _Hist. de la Prov. de Mexico_, lib. ii., cap. 88. Comp. Charlevoix, _Journal Historique_, p. 350.

[207] I have pointed out that in various American dialects, as the Chipeway and Cree, the Maya, Quichua, etc., there are words of native origin, which were used to convey the notion of the love of the gods in pure and high senses. See the article on “The Conception of Love in American Languages,” in _Essays of an Americanist_, pp. 416, 421, 428, etc.

[208] Otto Gruppe, quoted by Schrader.

[209] _Religion of the Semites_, p. 18.

[210] The idea of mimicry survived long, and indeed still exists, in what is called “sympathetic magic”; when, for instance, to produce blindness in an enemy, an image is made of him and its eyes transfixed with thorns. Compare Lenormant, _Chaldean Magic_, p. 12.

[211] _Myths of the New World_, p. 17.

[212] Curr, _The Australian Race_, vol. ii., pp. 66, 67.

[213] Cogolludo, _Historia de Yucatan_, lib. iv., cap. viii.

[214] Brinton, _Nagualism_, p. 53.

[215] Freihold, _Die Lebensgeschichte der Menschheit_, p. 134. His expressions are: 1. Das Menschenwerden des Göttlichen; and, 2. Die Vergötterung des Menschen.

[216] _Religion of the Semites_, p. 263. This statement will also be considered in the sixth lecture of this series.

[217] Indeed, among the Patagonian Indians, according to a competent observer, there are no fixed religious ceremonies whatever, except those of a personal character, referring to births, marriages, deaths etc.—George C. Musters, _Among the Patagonians_, chap. v.

[218] The anaphora, remarks the Rev. John M. Neale, in his _History of the Holy Eastern Church_, vol. ii., chap, i., has always been “by far the most important part” of the Christian liturgies. It recurs in nearly all primitive worship.

[219] Granger, _Worship of the Romans_, pp. 272, 303, etc.

[220] Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, vol. i., p. 42; Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, p. 260; Payne Knight, _Ancient Art_, p. 50.

[221] _Indian Sign Language_, pp. 167-70.

[222] _Teutonic Mythology_, vol. i., p. 42.

[223] Von Tschudi, _Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Alten Peru_, p. 156.

[224] See _Myths of the New World_, pp. 112, _sq._

[225] See Richard Andree’s remarks on “die Masken im Kultus,” in his _Ethnographische Parallelen_, _Neue Folge_, p. 109, _sq._

[226] Jacob Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, vol. i., p. 48, _sq._

[227] A. B. Meyer, in _Globus_, Bd. lxvii., p. 334.

[228] The terms “honorific” and “piacular” were, I believe, first suggested by Dr. W. Robertson Smith. They are very appropriate.

[229] Holtzmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_, p. 232.

[230] Oviedo, _Historia de las Indias_, lib. x., cap. xi.

[231] Balboa, _Histoire du Perou_, pp. 125-7.

[232] Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, vol. ii., p. 31.

[233] Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva España_, lib. i.

[234] Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, in _An. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology_, vol. xi., p. 132.

[235] Dorsey, _Siouan Cults_, p. 511.

[236] A. d’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, tom. i., p. 237.

[237] Examples in my _Native Calendar of Central America_, p. 18. It was a favourite amulet among the Crees (Mackenzie, _Hist. of the Fur Trade_, p. 86).

[238] Achelis, _Moderne Völkerkunde_, p. 370; Man, in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, vol. xii., p. 172.

[239] Charlevoix, _Hist. de la Nouvelle France_, ch. vi. Sprinkling the new-born child as a religious ceremony prevailed in New Zealand and throughout Polynesia. (Fornander, _The Polynesian Race_, vol. i., p. 236.)

[240] Cogolludo, _Historia de Yucatan_, lib. iv., cap. vi. The same belief prevailed in some African tribes; see Achelis, _Moderne Völkerkunde_, p. 393.

[241] H. R. Schoolcraft, _Oneóta_, pp. 331, 456.

[242] _Notices of East Florida by a Recent Traveller_, p. 79.

[243] Gregg, _Commerce of the Prairies_, vol. ii., p. 271.

[244] Examples in E. S. Hartland’s _Science of Fairy Tales_, p. 309.

[245] R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen_, p. 177.

[246] The _Bora_ has been often described, by no one better than Mr. A. W. Howitt in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, vol. vii., p. 242, _sq._, and vol. xiv., p. 306, _sq._

[247] J. G. Kohl, _Kitchi Gami_, p. 228.

[248] Captain Clark, _Indian Sign Language_, p. 254. D’Orbigny describes the bloody ordeals through which girls in South American tribes were obliged to pass. _L’Homme Américain_, tom. i., pp. 193, 237.

[249] Curr, _The Australian Race_ vol. i., pp. 45-50; Palmer, in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, vol. xiii., p. 301.

[250] See Post, in _Globus_, B. lxvii., s. 274.

[251] Palmer, _ubi supra_, p. 301.

[252] Lafitau, _Mœurs des Sauvages Américains_, lib. ii., ch. vi.

[253] Musters asserts this positively of the Tehuelche and other tribes (_Among the Patagonians_, chap. v.); Captain Clark, whose long experience among our Western tribes constituted him an authority of the first rank, takes pains to correct the notion that _among the natives_ wives are bought, although they are by white men (_Indian Sign Language_, pp. 245-6). It would be easy to multiply references to the same effect.

[254] Bleek, _Bushman Folk-lore_, p. 13.

[255] _Worship of the Romans_, p. 67.

[256] This has been demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt by Dr. S. K. Steinmetz in a remarkable study of “Endo-cannibalismus,” in the _Archiv für Anthropologie_, 1896.

[257] Granger, _ubi supra_, p. 37. The word “burial” in ethnology is used to denote all modes of disposal of the corpse. This is etymologically correct. See Yarrow, _Mortuary Customs of the North American Indians_, p. 5.

[258] Navarrete, _Viages_, tom. iii., p. 401; Dumont, _Mems. Hist. sur la Louisiane_, tom. i., p. 178; Gumilla, _Hist. del Orinoco_, p. 201. Coréal says, the widows esteemed it a privilege to be buried with the corpse and disputed among themselves for the honour, _Voiages_, tom. ii., pp. 93, 94. The Taenzas had the same customs as the Natchez, Tonty, _Mémoire_, in French, _Hist. Colls. of Louisiana_, p. 61.

[259] Arthur J. Evans, in _Proc. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Science_, 1896, Sect. H.

[260] Stephen Powers, _Indians of California_, pp. 181, 207. The Tasmanians and Fuegians, probably the lowest of known tribes, burned their dead. Hyades et Deniker, _Mission Scientifique_, p. 379; Fenton, _History of Tasmania_, p. 95. Some tribes gave as a reason for burning their dead that otherwise bears and wolves would eat the corpse, and the soul would be obliged to take on their forms.—_Pres. Message and Ac. Docs._, 1851, pt. iii., p. 506.

[261] Alonso de la Peña Montenegro, _Itinerario para Parrocos de Indios_, p. 185 (Madrid, 1771).

[262] Clark, _Indian Sign Language_, p. 263.

[263] K. T. Preuss, in the _Bastian Festschrift_.

[264] _Anthropologie des Naturvölker_, Bd. i., p. 459.

[265] The application of the blood, observes Professor Granger, “bound together in some way those who were present at the rite” (_Worship of the Romans_, p. 210). This subject is fully discussed by Dr. H. C. Trumbull in his works, _The Blood Covenant_, and _The Threshold Covenant_.

[266] Castren, in the Introduction to his _Finnische Mythologie_, has some excellent remarks on the beneficial effects of shamanism. It is an effort to free the human mind from the shackles of blind natural forces; it recognises the dependence of the subjective on an objective will, etc.

[267] _Myth and Science_, p. 41.

[268] Hahn, _Tsuni ǁGoam_, p. 21.

[269] Ling Roth, _Natives of Sarawak_, vol. i., pp. 259, 271, 282; vol. ii., App., p. clxxv.

[270] Walthouse, in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, vol. v., p. 415.

[271] Nuñez de la Vega, _Constituciones Diocesanas de Chiapas_, fol. 9.

[272] The locally famous Maria Candelaria. At the head of fifteen thousand warriors, she defied the Spanish army for nearly a year, and, though defeated, was never captured. Her story is scantily recorded by Vicente Pineda, in his _Historia de las Sublevaciones Indigenas en el Estado de Chiapas_, pp. 38-70.

[273] Otfried Müller, _Die Etrusker_, Bd. ii., ss. 77, 78.

[274] Compare Keary, _Outlines of Primitive Belief_, p. 60; and Maury, _La Magie et Astrologie_, p. 386, _sq._

[275] Geo. Turner, _Samoa_, p. 9; Dr. Tautain, in _L’Anthropologie_, tome vii., p. 548.

[276] On the ordeal, see Post, _Ethnologisches Jurisprudenz_, Bd. ii., ss. 459, _sq._, 479; Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, Bd. i., s. 461. The assertion by some writers that the ordeal was not known to the American Indians is incorrect. For example, Captain Clark recounts those to test the virtue of women who have been accused. _Indian Sign Language_, pp. 45, 208.

[277] See S. K. Steinmetz on “Der Zweikampf als Ordal” in his _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe_, Bd. ii., s. 76, _sq._

[278] Post, _ubi supra_, Bd. ii., s. 478.

[279] Adair, _Hist. of the N. American Indians_, p. 158; Boscana, _Acc. of the Indians of California_, p. 262.

[280] This is presented admirably and at length by M. Kulischer in an article “Der Dualismus der Ethik bei den primitiven Völkern,” in the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, Bd. xvii., pp. 205, _sqq._ He also sees clearly enough that the same principle, masked and denied though it be, reigns to-day. The “categorical imperative” of Kant, is as far from realisation as is “the golden rule.”