Part 11

The first practical success in steam navigation was made by John Fitch, a native of Windsor, Conn., who had settled in New Jersey as a silversmith. The happy thought of propelling vessels by steam originated with him in 1784. He rapidly matured his plans, and in August, 1785, he petitioned Congress for aid in constructing his boat. The records of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia show that “a model, accompanied by a drawing and description of a machine for working a boat against a stream by means of a steam-engine, was laid before the society by John Fitch on Sept. 27, 1785.” With the pecuniary assistance of several gentlemen, he immediately undertook to build a steamboat. In the _Columbia Magazine_ for December, 1786, he gave a description of this vessel and its machinery. A steam cylinder over three feet long and one foot in diameter was placed horizontally in the bottom of the boat; the steam was let in at each end of the cylinder alternately, and after moving a reciprocating piston was discharged into a condenser, which formed a vacuum in the cylinder behind the moving piston. The force of the piston was transmitted to cranks on each side of the boat; which by means of connecting bars, moved twelve paddles, three on each side being in the water and three out at the same time. On May 1, 1781, Fitch’s steamboat, “The Perseverance,” was put in motion on the Delaware River, and made three miles an hour. This speed did not satisfy Fitch, and various improvements were soon added. The boat, with its greatly increased power, was successfully tested in the fall of 1788. The late Dr. Thornton, long at the head of the United States Patent Office, and many other eminent men, certified that the steamer moved in dead water at the rate of eight miles an hour, or one mile in seven and a half minutes. With thirty passengers the boat left Philadelphia, and, moving against the current of the Delaware, reached Burlington, a distance of twenty miles, in three hours and ten minutes. Dr. Thornton stated that “The Perseverance” afterwards made eighty miles in one day. This speed will excite wonder when the difficulty of keeping the piston tight against the comparatively rough interior surface of the cylinder is taken into consideration. The steamboat was run for some time as a packet to Burlington, but after several mishaps it was burned in 1792. But more money was needed to introduce the invention, and the numerous stockholders could not be brought to respond to further assessments. Fitch himself was cramped for the necessaries of life. He repeatedly asserted that the passenger traffic of the great Western rivers would one day be carried on exclusively by steam, that ships of war and packet ships would navigate the Atlantic by steam, and that some one who came after him would reap fame and fortune from his invention. Fitch’s claim of invention was contested by James Rumsey, of Maryland, who, in 1786, drove a boat on the Potomac, near Sheppardstown, at the rate of four miles an hour by means of a water-jet forced out at the stern. But a careful examination of the evidence proves that the honor of bringing the invention to a successful completion belongs to Fitch. It may also be mentioned that a boat was propelled by steam on the Conestoga River in 1763 by William Henry, of Chester County, Penn., but this was only an experiment, although attended with flattering results, and had no permanent effect. It was from Fitch’s labors that Fulton first conceived the idea of steam navigation, which has made his name famous.

313. In what American city are burials made entirely above the ground?

One of the noted features of New Orleans is its cemeteries. Owing to the undrained condition of the subsoil, burials are made entirely above ground, in tombs of stuccoed brick and of granite and marble. Some of these are very elegant and costly, and many of the burial grounds, with their long alleys of these tombs of diverse designs deeply shaded by avenues of cedars and the _Magnolia grandiflora_, possess a severe but emphatic beauty.

314. Who were the “Three Kings of Cologne”?

This name is given to the three Magi who came from the East to offer gifts to the infant Jesus. Their names are commonly said to be Malchior, Gaspar, and Balthazar. Gaspar means “the white one”; Malchior, “king of light”; Balthazar, “lord of treasures.” The first offered gold, symbolic of kingship; the second, frankincense, symbolic of divinity; the third, myrrh, symbolic of death, myrrh being used in embalming the dead. Their bodies are said to have been brought by the Empress Helena from the East to Constantinople, whence they were transferred to Milan. Afterward, in 1164, on Milan being taken by the Emperor Frederick, they were presented by him to the Archbishop of Cologne, who placed them in the principal church of the city, where, says Cressy, “they are to this day celebrated with great veneration.” Another tradition gives their names as Apellius, Amerus, and Damascus; another as Magalath, Galgalath, and Sarasin; and still another as Ator, Sator, and Peratoras.

315. Which is the highest spot inhabited by human beings?

It is said to be the Buddhist cloister of Hanie, Thibet, where twenty-one priests live at an altitude of sixteen thousand feet.

316. When was the “Dark Day”?

May 19, 1780, was so called on account of a remarkable darkness on that day extending over all New England. In some places persons could not see to read common print in the open air for several hours together. Birds sang their evening song, disappeared, and became silent; fowls went to roost; cattle sought the barnyard; and candles were lighted in the houses. The obscuration began about ten o’clock in the morning, and continued till the middle of the next night, but with differences of degree and duration in different places. For several days previous the wind had been variable, but chiefly from the southwest and the northeast. The true cause of this remarkable phenomenon is not known.

317. When was the “Day of Barricades”?

May 12, 1588. On this day the Duke of Guise entered Paris, when Henry III., at his instigation, consented to take severe measures against the Huguenots, on the promise that the duke would assist him in purging Paris of strangers and obnoxious persons. No sooner, however, was an attempt made to carry out this plan, than the populace arose, erected barricades, and attacked the king’s troops with irresistible fury. Henry III., having requested the Duke of Guise to put a stop to the conflict, fled from Paris, and the moment the duke showed himself to the people, they pulled down the barricades.

This name is also given to Aug. 26, 1648; so called on account of a riot, instigated by the leaders of the Fronde, which took place in Paris on that day.

318. Why are the oceans so named?

When, on the 27th of November, 1520, Ferdinand-Magellan swept into the calm waters of that new sea on which he was the first to sail, he named it the _Mar Pacifico_, on account of its peacefully rolling waters and its freedom from violent storms.

The Atlantic is so called from the Atlas Mountains near its eastern shores, or from the fabled island of Atlantis, which was situated in its bosom.

The Indian Ocean is so called because it lies about India and the Indies.

The Arctic Ocean lies directly under the constellation of the Bear. Greek Αρκτος, a bear.

The Antarctic Ocean lies opposite to the Arctic. Greek ’αντί, against.

319. What was the “El Dorado”?

El Dorado, or the golden land, was a name given by the Spaniards to an imaginary country, supposed, in the sixteenth century, to be situated in the interior of South America, between the rivers Orinoco and Amazon, and abounding in gold and all manner of precious stones. Expeditions were fitted out for the purpose of discovering this fabulous region; and, though all such attempts proved abortive, the rumors of its existence continued to be believed down to the beginning of the eighteenth century. It is said that the name was at first applied, not to a country, but to a man, “el rey dorado.” Sir Walter Raleigh, in his “Discovery of the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana,” gives a description of the rising of this gilded king, whose chamberlains, every morning after having rubbed his naked body with aromatic oils, blew powdered gold over it through long _sarbacans_. After the name came to be used as the designation of a country, it seems to have been variously applied, and the expeditions in search of the golden land had different destinations. Francisco Orellana, a companion of Pizarro, was the first to spread the account of this fabulous region in Europe.

320. What people formed the first temperance society?

The Rechabites. “But they said, We will drink no wine; for Jonadab the son of Rechab our father commanded us, saying, Ye shall drink no wine, neither ye nor your sons forever.”--JEREMIAH xxxv. 6.

321. Where is the “Bridge of Sighs”?

The “Bridge of Sighs” is a name popularly given to the covered passageway which connects the Doge’s palace in Venice with the state prisons, from the circumstance that the condemned prisoners were transported over the bridge from the hall of judgment to the place of execution. This bridge was built in 1589 by Da Ponte. Hood has used the name as the title of one of his poems.

322. In what country does grass grow upon trees?

The grass-tree is a native of Australia. It belongs to the order _Liliaceæ_. These trees are especially distinguished by their crowns of long, pendulous, grass-like leaves, from the centre of which arises a long stalk bearing at its summit a dense flower spike looking somewhat like a large cat-tail. Some species have very short stems, while others have trunks six to eighteen feet high, which, with their singular tufts of leaves, form a striking feature in the Australian landscape. The grassy leaves are gathered as food for cattle, and their tender base is often relished by man.

323. What is the origin of the phrase “To row up Salt River”?

This phrase has its origin in the fact that there is a small stream of that name in Kentucky, the passage of which is made difficult and laborious as well by its tortuous course as by the abundance of shallows and bars. The real application of the phrase is to the unhappy wight who has the task of propelling the boat up the stream; but in political or slang usage it was to those who are _rowed up_.

324. Who was the “American Pathfinder”?

This title is popularly given to Major-General John Charles Fremont, who conducted four exploring expeditions across the Rocky Mountains. On one instance, when he was intercepted by a range of mountains covered with snows, which the Indians declared no man could cross, and over which no reward could induce them to attempt to guide him, Fremont undertook the passage without a guide, and accomplished it in forty days, reaching Sutter’s Fort on the Sacramento with his men reduced almost to skeletons, and with only thirty-three out of sixty-seven horses and mules remaining. He is also called the “Pathfinder of the Rocky Mountains.”

325. Which is the largest locomotive in the world?

The largest locomotive in the world is called El Gobernador, built at the Central Pacific Railroad shops in Sacramento, Cal., in 1883. The engine and tender are sixty-five feet five inches long; there are five pairs of drivers, each four feet nine inches in diameter; the cylinders are twenty-one inches in diameter, thirty-six inch stroke; there are twenty-six wheels, and the weight of the engine is seventy-three tons.

326. Whence does the cravat obtain its name?

The cravat is so called from a French regiment of light horse called “_the royal Cravate_,” because they were attired in the fashion of the Cravates or Croats, as they are now called, inhabitants of an Austrian province, who largely composed the Austrian army. In 1636 the French regiment was uniformed in imitation, as the Zouaves were at a later day; and when the neckties worn by these troops became fashionable in civil as well as military ranks, the name of the regiment was given to the tie.

327. Who wrote the first English book?

Sir John Mandeville in 1356. In it he shows a correct idea of the form of the earth, and of position in latitude ascertained by observation of the Pole Star; he knows that there are antipodes, and that if ships were sent on voyages of discovery they might sail round the world. And he tells a curious story which he heard in his youth, how a worthy man did travel ever eastward until he came to his own country again. But, on the other hand, he repeatedly asserts the old belief that Jerusalem was in the centre of the world, whilst he maintains in proof of this that at the equinox a spear planted erect in Jerusalem casts no shadow at noon; which, if true, would only show that the city was on the equator.

328. Who was the first child born of English parents in America?

Virginia Dare, who was born at Roanoke, on the 18th of August, 1587. Her mother, Eleanor Dare, was the daughter of John White, the governor of the colony.

329. What are the “Horse Latitudes”?

Seamen give this name to a bank or region of calms in the Atlantic Ocean, about the parallels of 30–35 degrees north. The name is said to be derived from the circumstance that vessels formerly bound from New England to the West Indies, with a deck-load of horses, were often delayed in this calm belt of Cancer, and, for want of water, were obliged to throw the animals overboard.

330. What city is called “Porkopolis”?

Cincinnati, one of the greatest American pork markets, is popularly so called.

331. Who was the “Iron Duke”?

Arthur Wellesley, K. G., Duke of Wellington. According to the Rev. G. R. Gleig, this sobriquet arose from the building of an iron steamboat, which plied between Liverpool and Dublin, and which its owners called the “Duke of Wellington.” The term “Iron Duke” was first applied to the vessel; and by and by, rather in jest than in earnest, it was transferred to the duke himself. It had no reference whatever, at the outset, to any peculiarities or assumed peculiarities in his disposition; though, from the popular belief that he never entertained a single generous feeling toward the masses, it is sometimes understood as a figurative allusion to his supposed hostility to the interests of the lower orders.

332. Where is the “Island of St. Brandan”?

This marvellous flying island, the subject of many traditions, is represented as about ninety leagues in length, lying beyond the Canaries. This island appears on most of the maps of the time of Columbus, and is laid down in a French geographical chart of as late a date as 1755, in which it is placed five degrees west of the island of Ferro, in latitude twenty-nine degrees north. The name _St. Brandan_, or _Borandan_, given to this imaginary island, is said to be derived from an Irish abbot who flourished in the sixth century, and concerning whose voyage in search of the Islands of Paradise many legends are related. Many expeditions were sent forth in quest of this mysterious island, the last being from Spain in 1721; but it always eluded the search. The Spaniards believe this lost island to be the retreat of their King Rodrigo; the Portuguese assign it to their Don Sebastian. “Its reality,” says Irving, “was for a long time a matter of firm belief. The public, after trying all kinds of sophistry, took refuge in the supernatural to defend their favorite chimera. They maintained that it was rendered inaccessible to mortals by Divine Providence, or by diabolical magic. Poetry, it is said, has owed to this popular belief one of its beautiful fictions, and the garden of Armida, where Rinaldo was detained enchanted, and which Tasso places in one of the Canary Isles, has been identified with the imaginary San Borandan.” The origin of this illusion has been ascribed to certain atmospherical deceptions, like that of the _Fata Morgana_.

333. Where is the “Island of the Seven Cities”?

This imaginary island is the subject of one of the popular traditions concerning the ocean, which were current in the time of Columbus. It is represented as abounding in gold, with magnificent houses and temples, and high towers that shone at a distance. The legend relates that at the time of the conquest of Spain and Portugal by the Moors, when the inhabitants fled in every direction to escape from slavery, seven bishops, followed by a great number of people, took shipping and abandoned themselves to their fate upon the high seas. After tossing about for a time, they landed upon an unknown island in the midst of the ocean. Here the bishops burned the ships to prevent the desertion of their followers, and founded seven cities. This mysterious island is said to have been visited at different times by navigators, who, however, were never permitted to return.

334. Why has March 25 been adopted as “Moving Day” in many parts of our country?

Until the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, in 1752, the English legal year began on the 25th of March. Consequently on that day all leases, etc., expired, lands changed hands, etc. This custom still survives in many parts of our own country, and March 25 is our “Moving Day.” Under the name of Lady Day, the 25th of March is still one of the regular quarter-days in England and Ireland for the payment of rent.

335. Who was Lalla Rookh?

This heroine of a poem of the same name by Moore is the daughter of the great Aurungzebe. She is betrothed to the young king of Bucharia, and sets forth, with a splendid train of attendants, to meet him in the delightful valley of Cashmere. To amuse the languor, or divert the impatience of the royal bride, in the noontide and night halts of her luxurious progress, a young Cashmerian poet had been sent by the gallantry of the bridegroom, and recites, on these occasions, the several tales that make up the bulk of the poem. With him she falls desperately in love, and by the time she enters the lovely vale of Cashmere, and sees the glittering palaces and towers prepared for her reception, she feels that she would joyfully forego all this pomp and splendor, and fly to the desert with the youthful bard whom she adores. He, however, has now disappeared from her side, and she is supported, with fainting heart and downcast eye, into the presence of her tyrant; when a well-known voice bids her be of good cheer, and, looking up, she sees her beloved poet in the prince himself, who had assumed this gallant disguise, and won her affections without any aid from his rank or her engagement.

336. Which is the “Land of Steady Habits”?

Connecticut is sometimes so designated, in allusion to the moral character of its inhabitants.

337. Which is the “Lumber State”?

Maine. The inhabitants of this State are largely engaged in the business of cutting and rafting lumber, or of converting it into boards, shingles, scantlings, and the like.

338. What was the “Bible of the Greeks”?

This name is sometimes applied to the works of Homer and Hesiod, as they put into writing the beliefs concerning the gods.

339. Who was the “Prince of Destruction”?

This name was conferred upon Tamerlane, or Timour (1335–1405), one of the most celebrated of Oriental conquerors, who overran Persia, Tartary, and Hindostan, his conquests extending from the Volga to the Persian Gulf, and from the Ganges to the Archipelago. He was prevented only by the want of shipping from crossing into Europe. He died just as he was making vast preparations for the invasion of China. No conquests were ever attended with greater cruelty, devastation, and waste of life.

340. What was the “Luz”?

This name was given by the old Jewish rabbins to an imaginary little bone which they believed to exist at the base of the spinal column, and to be incapable of destruction. To its ever-living power, fermented by a kind of dew from heaven, they ascribed the resurrection of the dead.

“Hadrian (whose bones may they be ground, and his name blotted out!) asked R. Joshua, Ben Hananiah, ‘How doth a man revive again in the world to come?’ He answered and said, ‘From _luz_, in the backbone.’ Saith he to him, ‘Demonstrate this to me.’ Then he took _luz_, a little bone out of the backbone, and put it in water, and it was not steeped; he put it in the fire, and it was not burned; he brought it to the mill, and that could not grind it; he laid it on the anvil, and knocked it with a hammer, but the anvil was cleft, and the hammer broken.” _Lightfoot._

341. Who was the “Queen of Hearts”?

Elizabeth, the daughter of James I., and the unfortunate queen of Bohemia, was so engaging in her behavior, that she was so called in the Low Countries. When her fortunes were at the lowest ebb, she never departed from her dignity; and poverty and distress seemed to have no other effect upon her but to render her more an object of admiration than before.

342. Why is New Jersey sometimes called “Spain”?

New Jersey receives this sobriquet from the fact that Joseph Bonaparte, the eldest brother of Napoleon, and ex-king of Spain, once occupied the extensive grounds and mansion called Point Breeze, at Bordentown, in that State. Here he lived for some years under the title of Comte de Survilliers, endeared to the inhabitants by his liberality and gracious manners, and he was elected to many philanthropical and learned associations. An act was passed in 1817 by the Legislature of New Jersey to enable him, as an alien, to hold real estate.

343. Who were the “Roundheads”?

In English history this nickname was given, in the reign of Charles I., to the Puritans or parliamentary party, who were accustomed to wear their hair cut close to the head. The term was soon extended in its application so as to include all the adherents of the Parliament, whether Puritans or not. The origin of the term is not certainly known. Some attribute it to the circumstance that staid and serious persons at the time of the civil wars were used to wear black skullcaps reaching down to the ears. Others say it was because the Puritans wore their hair short, while the opposite party, the Cavaliers, wore theirs in long ringlets. According to Haydn, the Puritans were in the habit of putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting their hair by the edge or brim. Still another account is, that Queen Henrietta Maria, at Stratford’s trial, asked “who that _round-headed_ man was,” meaning Mr. Pym, her attention having been directed to him “because he spake so strongly.”

344. What was the origin of the expression “Simon Pure”?

This expression, which means “the real man,” had its origin in the name of a Pennsylvania Quaker in Mrs. Centlivre’s comedy, “A Bold Stroke for a Wife.” Being about to visit London to attend the quarterly meeting of his sect, his friend, Aminadab Holdfast, sends a letter of recommendation and introduction to another Quaker, Obadiah Prim, a rigid and stern man, who is guardian of Anne Lovely, a young lady worth £30,000. Colonel Feignwell, another character in the same play, who is enamoured of Miss Lovely and her handsome fortune, availing himself of an accidental discovery of Holdfast’s letter and of its contents, succeeds in passing himself off on Prim as his expected visitor. The real Simon Pure, calling at Prim’s house, is treated as an impostor, and is obliged to depart in order to hunt up witnesses who can testify to his identity. Meantime Feignwell succeeds in getting from Prim a written and unconditional consent to his marriage with Anne. No sooner has he obtained possession of the document, than Simon Pure reappears with his witnesses, and Prim discovers the trick that has been put upon him.

345. What was the origin of the phrase “To catch a Tartar”?