CHAPTER X

MILITARY PYROTECHNY IN THE GREAT WAR

The outbreak of the great war, whatever may have been the case as regards other branches, found the Service badly equipped pyrotechnically. The great and almost frantic interest taken in military pyrotechny during the first half of the nineteenth century had died away. Gradually the pyrotechnic stores included in the official schedule had been reduced until in 1914 a few rockets—mostly signal—lights for signalling and illumination, Very pistol cartridges for signalling purposes, with single stars of various colours, and incendiary and light stars for shells constituted the entire list.

The cause of this neglect of the art of pyrotechny for warlike purposes was not difficult to understand. Rifled barrels, breech-loading, and quick-firing ordnance had entirely destroyed interest in the rocket as a projectile. The telephone and telegraph had almost entirely superseded older methods of signalling, and so with most of the pyrotechnic contrivances which, less than a century before, had been thought to be indispensable.

As events proved, this abandonment of old ideas was premature. Although every thinking man in the country realised that war was some day inevitable, no one, or at least very few, realised the nature of the struggle. The development of land war into what were practically siege operations on a gigantic scale; the nature of sea warfare with the new factors, the submarine, seaplane and wireless; the extent and ferocity of aerial warfare—all were unforeseen. Yet each of these called for new inventions, new methods of destruction, new methods of protection and communication, and in many cases the resuscitation of old ideas long since abandoned.

And as fire has for all time been associated with the sword, it is small wonder that pyrotechny played no inconspicuous part in the struggle.

As has always been the case, and no doubt always will be, the outbreak of hostilities was the signal for an epidemic of inventions. Men who had never before interested themselves either in war, or in that particular department of science to which their ideas belong, and in spite of or perhaps because of an entire ignorance of the subject, inundated the authorities with so-called inventions which were so much waste of time to all concerned.

In this connection it is interesting to turn to a volume of “Abridgements of Specifications relating to Fire-arms and Other Weapons,” published by the Patent Office in 1859. The preface contains the following remarks: “It is worthy of notice that a very large proportion of the so-called inventions of the present day are, in fact, old contrivances, sometimes modified and adapted to modern requirements, but very often identical with what has been tried and abandoned as useless long ago. From the year 1617 down to the end of the year 1852, not more than about 300 patents were granted for inventions relating to fire-arms. When the war with Russia broke out the Patent Office was inundated with applications for Letters Patent for similar inventions, and about 600 have since been actually granted. Of these it may be safely said that five-sixths of the applications related to old contrivances which have been patented over and over again.”

Many of these inventions recall a story of the Duke of Wellington, who was examining a steam rocket invented and patented by a Jacob Perkins in 1824. This device consisted of an iron case with a stick like that of a rocket. The case was filled with water and had a fusible metal plug at the base. The case was heated, and when the plug melted the generated steam escaped and impinging on the air drove forward the projectile. The absurdity of the idea is too obvious to need discussion. The Duke carefully examined it, and after asking many questions, remarked: “If this had been invented first and gunpowder afterwards, what a capital improvement gunpowder would have been.”

The great war saw these “inventions” multiplied a thousand-fold. The spread of education, the availability of books from which at least a smattering of any subject could be obtained, and from the increase both in quality and quantity of newspaper news a consequent closer knowledge of what was happening—all these factors helped to add to the crop of ideas. In many cases undoubtedly these ideas were elaborated and worked out by the inventor, adopted by the authorities, and proved of the highest value. These cases were, however, greatly in the minority, and were generally the work of one who had at least some pre-knowledge of his subject. Such a man was the late Wing-Commander F. A. Brock, R.N.A.S., of whom it can be said without fear of contradiction no one man did more for military pyrotechny during the great war, and possibly in no other single subject during the war was one man so invaluable.

Born in 1884, educated at Dulwich, he entered the firm of C. T. Brock and Co. in 1901, where he remained until the outbreak of war. Endowed with a marked inventive ability and a phenomenal memory, and brought up as it were in an atmosphere of pyrotechny, he developed a knowledge of pyrotechnic chemistry which was extraordinary and appeared almost instinctive.

A naval correspondent, writing in “The Navy,” speaks of him as follows: “From H_{2}O to WO_{2} they knew all about it, or thought they did until the wayward genius of the Commander, who never pretended to be a chemist, taught them that there were permutations and combinations to the _n_th degree that they had never dared to think of.

“Wing-Commander Brock’s great secret was originality. To the accepted formula he would add just a touch of the unexpected. The chemists would say it can’t be done, or it wouldn’t work. Sometimes it did not, but often it did, very nearly. And Brock’s pioneer brain touched it a bit more—and lo! the impossible and the unexpected had arrived.”

During his connection with the firm he had travelled over a large portion of the world on its behalf. His experience at a comparatively early age in organising and carrying out large displays—where the safety of thousands of spectators is in the hands of the directing mind—no doubt did much to develop those qualities of self-reliance and self-confidence which were so marked a characteristic of his Service career.

Wing-Commander Brock was responsible for many pyrotechnic inventions, and for the practical development of many ideas and inventions not his own, but which required technical knowledge and experience to ensure success.

It is perhaps as the “inventor of the smoke screen” that he is best known, a quite mistaken idea, the fallacy of which a moment’s consideration will show. There are many references to the use of smoke as a screen in classic times and even in mythology. The smoke ball, as we have seen, was a recognised military store up to the middle of the last century. It is just as absurd to credit Commander Brock, or for that matter any living man, with the invention of the use of the smoke screen in warfare as to credit the inventor of a patent fire extinguisher with the idea of putting out fires.

What Commander Brock did do was to provide the means when the demand arose of producing smoke suited to the particular purpose for which it was to be used, whether for screens, signalling, or other purposes.

As an example the “E” float may be cited. A demand had arisen for a smoke-producing device for use on board merchant ships to assist escape from enemy submarine attack. Commander Brock, with characteristic energy, in a very short space of time produced the “E” float, which for ease in manipulation by untrained operators and volume of smoke produced was probably unsurpassed by any subsequent device, and on the score of cheapness it undoubtedly held the field.

This store, which was in reality a triumph of pyrotechnic design, was in appearance so simple as to mislead some at least to whom greater insight might have been credited as to the ingenuity of its design. Counsel at a sitting of the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors, described the float as “half-a-dozen or so drain rockets in a box.” A remark which might be considered as accurate as to describe a clock as some pieces of metal in a box, were it not for the fact that the box in question contained no drain rockets, or anything resembling them more closely than one firework resembles another designed for quite a different purpose.

The requirements to be met were as follows: The apparatus was to be used by men whom by nature of their employment it was impossible to train individually, therefore its ignition must be simple and at the same time certain and quick in action, and carried on the float itself; a chamber had to be provided in which to as it were accumulate the smoke generated, which chamber had of necessity to have holes through which the smoke could issue. As the float had to be dropped after ignition from the deck of the vessel into the sea, and would consequently be submerged for a short time, these holes must be in some way sealed until the float rose to the surface. The pyrotechnic compositions which produce the greatest volume of smoke were found to take some considerable time to attain their maximum of production, and separate units had to be included which would develop almost instantaneously a big mass of smoke, pending the generation of the main supply.

In addition, the float must be so constructed as to remain efficient when stored on the deck of a merchant vessel in all weathers and conditions.

Two hundred thousand of these floats were issued during the war.

The subject of smoke is one which naturally attracts the attention of the pyrotechnist, although in what might be called a negative direction.

For display work the elimination of smoke is obviously of greater importance than its production, but inquiry into the one of necessity leads to a knowledge of the other.

In some few cases the smoke generated is of value in adding to the effect of the burning composition; the most noticeable case of this is the use of coloured fire as flares, that is to say, burnt in masses for the illumination of trees and other natural features. Some years ago Messrs. C. T. Brock & Co. spent considerable time in eliminating as far as possible the smoke from coloured fire, when it was found that without the smoke the result was very poor. It was the reflection of the colour on the smoke upon which the illumination depended for its effect. This, however, is hardly germane to our subject, but is mentioned to indicate how largely the question of smoke enters into the work of the modern pyrotechnist.

Commander Brock had, apart from his ordinary work, been engaged for some months prior to the outbreak of war on the question of the production of smoke for the Admiralty, and had also interested himself in the subject for commercial purposes, such as insecticide and other uses. He was therefore in a position, when the demand arose for smoke both for naval and military use, to start research in the matter considerably ahead of other inquirers, and to produce immediately a smoke that would supply the needs for the time being until more satisfactory means could be evolved.

The Royal Naval Experimental Station at Stratford, of which he was in command and which he organised and brought into being, had many activities besides smoke. But even the exacting work of controlling its many activities was not sufficient for the Commander’s untiring energy; the few moments he could snatch from his duties and the many he stole from sleep were devoted to the invention and elaboration of war devices. His greatest achievement was the Brock anti-Zeppelin bullet, for which he and he alone is responsible, and which beyond any shadow of doubt delivered this country from the terror of the Zeppelin raids.

His other inventions include many purely pyrotechnic smoke devices and inventions connected with the production of smoke, such as igniters which were used to start the action of smoke production, the Dover flares of one million candle power each, used by the anti-submarine patrol in the Straits of Dover, and burned to the extent of several hundreds every night.

He was also responsible for several forms of stars for use in Very pistol cartridges.

Captain Carpenter, V.C., in his splendid book, “The Blocking of Zeebrugge,” writes as follows of his work in connection with that operation:

“It would be difficult for anybody to speak too highly of Wing-Commander Frank A. Brock. He was a rare personality. An inventive genius, than whom the country had no better, it was his brain that differentiated this blocking enterprise from all previous attempts in history in one most important particular. The difficulty of reaching the destination in the face of a strenuous opposition had hitherto brought failure, but he provided an antidote in the form of a satisfactory artificial fog designed to protect the blockships from the enemy’s guns during the critical period of approach. That in itself was a wonderful achievement, but his inventive mind was not satisfied therewith. To him we owed the special flares intended for turning darkness into light.

“A special buoy was wanted—one that would automatically provide its own light on being thrown into the water. Brock made so little of the problem that he produced such a buoy, designed, constructed and ready for use in less than twenty-four hours. Special signal lights were required: Brock produced them. Flame projectors, far exceeding anything hitherto known, were mooted: Brock produced them also. No matter what our requirements were Brock was undefeated. With a highly scientific brain he possessed extraordinary knowledge of almost any subject. He had travelled much and could tell you all that was worth knowing of any country from Patagonia to Spitzbergen. He was no mean authority on old prints and books, was also a keen philatelist, and was blessed with a remarkable memory. Wherever he went he carried with him a pocket edition of the New Testament, which was his favourite possession; his knowledge of the contents was quite unique. And with it all he was a great shot and an all-round sportsman. His fine physique was well remembered by many a Rugby footballer from the days when he played in the pack of one of the leading club fifteens. His geniality and humour were hard to beat. But of all his qualities, optimism perhaps held first place. At times we, who were far from being pessimistic, thought his optimism excessive, but it was justified absolutely with regard to the success of the enterprise.”

The “Very” was a pre-war invention, patented in 1878; it was not adopted into the Service until about ten years later. It consists of a short-barrelled pistol of 1 inch calibre—or rather that was the original size, a 1½ inch pattern was introduced during the war, and subsequently a 1½ inch pattern with a longer barrel and shoulder piece.

The original cartridge was in effect a single star Roman candle, fired by percussion. A small propelling charge drove out a single coloured star, either red, white, green or blue. The star rose to a height of about 300 feet. These were used purely for signalling purposes.

The war suggested another use of the “Very” pistol, that is for illuminating purposes, and various illuminating stars were introduced, both to light up upon reaching their objective with a range of two to three hundred yards, and to hang suspended from a parachute, similar to the old parachute light ball, but with many times the brilliance, although considerably less in size.

The difficulty of identifying coloured stars in daylight suggested the use of coloured smokes. These were successfully evolved by Major Wicks and Captain Gray, an achievement of far greater difficulty than the casual observer might think.

Apart from these synthetically prepared colours, the yellow smoke natural to orpiment was much used in signal stars.

Later stars were suggested by Commander Brock, which ascended burning white and at their height broke into two, and in a subsequent pattern into three, stars of varying colours.

The rifle grenade, which was fired by a rod fixed to the base of the grenade and running down the barrel of a rifle, being blown out by a cartridge without a bullet, was also fitted up for signalling purposes. Upon opening, a series of lights, arranged to code, were suspended from a parachute.

Recognition and illuminating lights were constructed for use from aeroplanes, and were ignited by dropping through a launching tube fixed to the machine, which made contact and fired them electrically as they passed through.

Landing lights and wing-tip lights, electrically ignited, were other stores used in connection with aerial warfare.

Another was the incendiary bomb. Until the outbreak of war the incendiary composition for use as stars in incendiary shells was of a most primitive nature, and even during the war incendiary compositions were used which were ridiculous in comparison with those produced later.

The construction also of some of the earlier efforts was quite as absurd. Projectiles were devised in a thin paper case, intended to be dropped from heights of many thousand feet, and ignite on impact, whereas the impact produced by the velocity of a projectile after such a fall was sufficient to scatter the case and its ingredients in all directions.

It was the use of aluminium in pyrotechny which pointed the way to real incendiary composition, composition which exceeds the temperature of these primitive pitch and other elementary compositions by many times more than the flame of a candle exceeds the temperature of ice.

Bombs containing thermit, and later on thermalloy (a composition which set hard, and did away with the necessity of a case), were terrible weapons, giving a temperature which has hardly been exceeded by other means.

These compositions were almost identical with some of those containing aluminium used in pyrotechny for a considerable time before the war, but of course not for incendiary purposes. The intense heat is naturally accompanied by brilliant light, which was of great value to the pyrotechnists, the more so as aluminium compositions do not deteriorate on being kept as do those containing magnesium, and although the light is not quite so brilliant, and has less actinic value, the fact that it is considerably cheaper, combined with its keeping qualities, renders it a very satisfactory substitute for that rather expensive metal, in very many cases at least.