Part 8

The possessions of Land Owner No. 1 being too small to maintain himself and family, he rents land to till on the shares. The custom is for the landlord to provide the land, the seed and the animals with which to do the cultivating and threshing. The tenant performs the labor and prepares for market the grain, which is divided equally. When not engaged in the necessary work of cultivating and harvesting the crops upon his own or rented land, he works in a “chacra” (vegetable garden), or finds employment in making adobes, bricks, tiles, or wooden stirrups, cutting lumber, curing skins, etc. Sometimes he is sent by neighboring hacendados on errands to the city for cargoes of goods, to mill with wheat, or to the railway with mule trains carrying charcoal. His possessions consist of a horse, a yoke of oxen, and possibly a mule. All the tools that he has or requires are an ax, a shovel, a hoe and a crowbar. His animals are usually pastured in the hacienda, and the “talaje” (pasturage), paid for in work during plowing, sowing, or harvest time. His “rancho” (house), which he refers to as “mi vivienda,” is a creation not defined in the annals of architecture. It is constructed by placing a number of poles in the ground; to the tops of these upright posts other timbers of a similar character are fastened by tying them with rope or pieces of bark. Between the posts, sticks and branches of trees are woven, forming a sort of basket work. Over this a coating of mud mixed with straw forms the walls. The frame for the roof is also made of the trunks of small trees fastened together with bark; over the crude skeleton is woven a straw thatch, which is seldom rain proof. The door is made by tying together sticks or planks, for which pieces of bark or rawhide serve as hinges. The floors are dirt, and there are no windows or chimneys, and when necessary to build a fire in the house the smoke filters out through crevices in the walls and the thatch roof. These miserable huts, which form the places of habitation of the poor, are never perpendicular nor stand at proper angles, for the reason that they are shaped by the crooked timbers forming their framework. The interior presents an appearance quite as barren and devoid of comfort as the exterior. The furniture consists of a crude bedstead, a rickety table, and a few benches or stools. There are no articles of comfort or luxury in the homes of the poor. The men sleep upon the ground, inside or out of the house, as they choose, or as the weather permits. The crude furniture and the burnt clay dishes upon which their food is served are made by the women. The food is usually cooked in an iron kettle over an open fire, or in an oven of brick and mud built outside of the house. A peculiar feature of these squalid ranchos, especially in the interior of the country, is the barrenness of their surroundings. Usually there is not a tree, shrub, plant or flower, or any living, growing, green thing to relieve the dreariness of the desolate surroundings. This is all the more surprising when it is remembered that Chile possesses a prodigious soil, and that all kinds of vegetation grows quickly and prolifically when water is applied to the ground. Along the railways and near the cities a majority of the ranchos are distinguished by the cultivation of a variety of fruit trees, vegetables and flowers. The site selected for a country house is usually with reference to a supply of water.

Viewed from the roadside these rickety ranchos present a picturesque appearance. It is the frayed edge of home life that is always to be found behind the sub-tropical finery of semi-tropical countries. It is not well, however, to examine too closely or inquire carefully into the details of this home life. It is better to be gracious, for squalid as is the peon’s cottage, and unkempt as the family may appear, the extraordinary variety of dirt and the fantastic untidiness of the huts baffle description and escape reproduction. Similar spots may be seen in any land, for every population has its wastrels, but in the far east there is not to be found a lower level of life and greater lack of comfort generally, than that which suffices for the lowest classes in Chile. In a country blessed with a paucity of noxious reptiles and insects, where no beast more formidable than the cowardly puma dwells, and where birds and flowers of rare beauty abound, it seems inappropriate that man should dwell in such domestic squalor.

The male occupants of these houses do not, as a rule, contribute anything to the maintenance of the family. That feature of domestic life is left exclusively to the women, who are a hard working, self-sacrificing, humble and long suffering class. While they are neither honest nor virtuous, their vices are due more to ignorance and circumstances than natural tendencies, and their rewards do not match their merits. They do not feel the necessity of acting with scrupulous honesty at all times, as they are possessed of the belief that the priests will remit all their sins upon the payment of a given sum of money. Their education is narrow and limited, and they have never been well instructed in the virtues of the ten commandments. They spin, weave and dye ponchos for their men folk, and for sale; make blankets, fabrics for clothing, and clay dishes for their own use and for the market. They raise poultry, not for home consumption, but that they may sell the fowls and eggs, which are usually sold in advance.

These people are always in debt to the well-to-do landowners in the community where they live, and from whom they buy cloth, wool, dyes, food, etc. When eggs are laid or fowls are grown they are given in payment for these articles. One not familiar with the customs and conditions would be surprised in traveling through the country to find that it is difficult to buy an egg or a chicken at any of the ranchos, notwithstanding the fact that there seems to be a plentiful supply at every house.

When in need, peons buy on credit, and will obligate anything they possess, present or prospective, in payment. They live from hand to mouth, and seldom have more than one day’s supply of food on hand. Their wants are few, they are easily satisfied and generally contented. In the production of articles requiring intelligence and skill, the women excel the men. In different localities they produce different kinds of articles. For example, in Linares they make a great variety of beautiful baskets and curios from colored horse hair and fine straw; in Talcahuano, Concepcion, Chillan and Quillota the country women devote their time to the production of pretty and durable lace called “minaque,” which is made by hand and in a variety of patterns; along the coast country they make excellent hats from the dwarf palm, called “olma”; in other localities they make baskets, large and small, useful and ornamental; they also make beautiful as well as useful articles from the horns of animals, and of wood, stone and paper. They are clever and adaptive in all of their occupations, but lack in those qualities which lead to independence. Their favorite position is sitting on the ground, and while engaged in their various occupations they carry on a chatty gossip about their personal affairs, or those of their neighbors, which is usually more racy than edifying.

There is a rustic beauty about the Chilean women in their youth, but their manner of living causes their beauty to fade at an early age, and at twenty-five the majority of them begin to look old and grow stout and homely. They acquire an erect carriage and grace of movement from the custom of carrying articles of various kinds upon the head. They have broad hips, well-developed busts, medium-sized feet and small, tapering hands. A bright, smiling, and attractive face, with sparkling eyes, small mouth, cherry lips and beautiful teeth, are some of the features of these peasant women. On Sundays and other feast days, when dressed in their quaint and fantastic costumes, in which brilliant colors form a conspicuous feature, they present an attractive appearance. They are polite, seldom bold and never intrusive. They are devotees of the Catholic church, but their religion is of a flexible character. They often go from the church to the “cancha de bola” to dance, drink and gossip, but are rarely drunk or disorderly. They are superstitious and believe in witchcraft. In their homes they are undemonstrative, but show their affection for their families and friends by their services and sacrifices, and their considerate attendance upon the aged rather than in expressions of sentiment and caresses.

Their love for their offspring is a question that is difficult to solve. If a male child is born they are pleased, because it means that the work of another peon will be added to the family resources. If a girl baby arrives, “it is too bad, but will serve.” In this and other ways they indicate that maternal love corresponds to the prospective benefits to be derived. If a child leaves its home, or dies, the parents show little grief or sorrow. Perhaps their sorrow is concealed from view,--at least it is to be hoped that such is the case.

The common drink among the people is “mate,” made from the leaves of the “yerba mate,” a plant that grows in Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil. Over five million pounds of mate, valued at more than 1,000,000 pesos, is imported into Chile annually. The beverage is made by steeping the leaves in hot water. It is drunk from a mate cup, an article peculiar to the country. They are usually the most expensive part of the household equipment. Many of those used by the better class of people are made of hammered silver, oddly shaped, curiously fashioned and artistically finished. They are frequently ornamented with quaint figures, representing birds, animals or reptiles. Others are made of gourds, artistically carved and ornamented with silver mountings, while common gourd cups serve the poor people. The method of drinking the mate is through a silver tube called “bombilla,” one end of which is enlarged, forming a kind of perforated ball, which serves as a strainer, preventing the dregs of the plant being drawn into the mouth. One of the curious and interesting sights in the country is the women sitting about the little ranchos indulging in their cups of mate.

The men comprising farmers No. 1 are more serious and more honest than the peons. Their food consists of wheat and beans. The wheat, which is roasted and ground into flour with a stone, is called “harina tostado.” It is eaten instead of bread, which they seldom have. When mixed with water or wine it makes a very nourishing drink, called “ulpo.” Sometimes when these poor farmer folk have a desire for bread, they buy a bag of flour, make a quantity of bread and sell it. When they have disposed of enough to pay for the flour, they convert the remainder of the supply into bread for home consumption.

From the families of this class of agriculturists the servants for the cities are obtained. The women act as house servants, in which capacity they have no responsibilities, simply performing such duties as they are given by their masters. They have no initiative, but make good servants, when properly trained. It is the custom to keep everything of value under lock and key, but the house servants, especially the women, are no more dishonest than those of other countries. The boys from the families in this class also go to the cities, where they become carpenters, blacksmiths, tailors, harness-makers, or laborers. They seldom rise to ownership, or positions of greater responsibility than performing a certain kind of labor for specific wages. As they become more proficient in their work or trade, enabling them to command better remuneration for their services, they invariably imitate the better classes, spending more money than they earn, and are always “atrasado” (behind in their accounts).

Few of the poor or middle classes know their ages. No certificate is given of baptism. If a priest is asked why this is not done, he will say that it is useless, as they cannot read. If it becomes necessary to establish the right to an inheritance, the church record is examined, provided that the person whose age is to be ascertained knows where he was baptized, and that the church register is in existence.

LAND OWNER NO. 2.

Land Owner No. 2 possesses more land than No. 1, but his holdings are very small. He owns a cart, a few yoke of oxen, some cows, sheep, hogs and poultry. He freights grain, flour, and charcoal for others from haciendas to the mills or railway stations, thereby adding to his income. The surplus from his earnings he prudently invests in property. These farmers are, as a rule, provident, having always food supplies in their houses, yet they seldom lift their families out of the rut of poverty. Most members of the family, including the head of the house, either go barefooted or wear only rawhide sandals upon their feet the year round, except Sundays, feast days and special occasions. It is only the women who are permitted to indulge frequently in the luxury of shoes and clean gowns. The sons work with the father and not as peons for others. These people associate with Farmers No. 1, and even with the peons as equals. Not, however, without prideful reflection, for they consider themselves above their poorer neighbors, although they do not say so. They are not admitted to the society of Land Owner No. 3, or the hacendados, although they have many interests in common and commercial relations with those classes. If you are his guest he will serve you wine or water in a glass tumbler, but he never uses such an article himself, and perhaps you will be given a knife and fork with which to eat your food. These middle class farmers constitute the best element in Chile. They work honestly to gain a livelihood, and ask no favors from others. They are too poor to engage in politics.

A peculiar feature of the life of this class of people is the methods they resort to to save money and increase their possessions. They live solely upon the products of their little farms, and seldom eat what they can sell. They make bread, but eat very little of it, the family consumption being limited to the equivalent of the profits on that which is sold. They keep liquors in the house, but to sell. If an animal is slaughtered, some kind of a function is arranged, to which the neighbors are invited and the meat disposed of in a feast, their guests being served as long as they have money with which to buy. If a woman desires some article of dress or adornment, and has not the money with which to purchase it, she gives a feast. She will go to a neighbor who has a hog and negotiate for the animal on credit: she also purchases an “arroba” (ten gallons) of “chicha,” for which she gives her promise to pay, the credit extending until the respective articles are disposed of. The hog, “chancha,” is slaughtered, and the feast is announced. There is music and a number of women who dance and sing are there as a special attraction. These feasts always attract a crowd and by the time the chancha and the chicha are disposed of, the woman conducting the affair has made sufficient profit to pay her indebtedness and to purchase the desired article.

LAND OWNER NO. 3.

The transition of Land Owners No. 3, from what is recognized as the inferior classes, to respectable citizens is generally due to the accumulation of property. Wealth constitutes recognized citizenship, and when obtained, they think that the right of sovereignty is theirs in the fullest degree. This transition often carries with it the idea that all law and government should be administered by them. Fortunately their inexperience and lack of education seldom permits them to rule higher than municipal legislation, or perhaps sub-delegate of a district. The phlegmatic temperament of this class of Chilenos is universal. If emotions ever stir the depths of their souls they manage to conceal the fact by an apparent calm composure.

Most of them are illiterate, but to their credit they have in recent years been endeavoring to secure for their children better education than that afforded them. The educational facilities of the country are not good, but the majority of the children of this class of farmers secure sufficient technical training in the schools to suffice for their simple lives. They are orderly, hard working people, and generally honest, as they interpret the meaning of the term. The Chilean characteristic of sticking tenaciously to custom and tradition is exemplified in the home life of these people. Their condition is little better or above that of Land Owners No. 1 and 2. From choice, rather than necessity, they follow the custom of their Indian ancestors by sitting upon the ground, a stone or a billet of wood; the food for the family is served from one dish, there being as many spoons as persons to be served. The materials which enter into the composition of the food of these farmer folk consisting of wheat, corn, beans, fruit, pepper, etc., are ground between stones. In fact the grinding stones are the most useful utensils in the equipment of the kitchen. They consist of one large flat stone with a smooth surface, and a smaller one, oval shaped. The material is placed upon the large stone, and the other in the hand of the operator is used to crush and grind the grain or dried vegetables to the proper consistency. This work is always done by the women. In the kitchen may be found a few pots, clay dishes, tin cups, wooden spoons and quantities of dirt. Occupying the kitchen, and apparently upon the most intimate terms with members of the family are pigs, goats, dogs, and chickens. If there are guests in the house, food is served in the dining room with some show of formality, but when the family is alone, the food is served in one dish from which the members help themselves with spoons until the supply is exhausted. It is then refilled with some other kind of food and the meal continues until all are satisfied. With a change of food the same dish and spoons are used without being washed. Tea and coffee are sometimes served when strangers are present, but when the family is alone, mate only is served as a drink, with their meals. The mate cup is filled and passed to the head of the house who drinks the contents through a “bombilla.” The cup is filled again and again, each member of the family drinking out of the same vessel and through the same bombilla. When there are no guests in the house the servants sometimes form part of the family group, eating out of the same pot, and having their turn at the mate through the family bombilla.

The tile-roofed adobe houses inhabited by this class of farmers are very plain. They are devoid of ornamentation within or without, and there is seldom a tree or shrub to relieve the dreary monotony of the surroundings. There are no windows in these places of abode, and the floor is either dirt or common brick. The furniture consists of beds, one or two home-made tables, and a few chairs of the commonest kind.

If a person of the better class visits the home of one of these Chilean farmers, he must do most of the talking, and it will be necessary to limit the conversation to subjects pertaining to the church, crops, animals, gossip, or questions relating to their districts. They know little of the great world lying beyond the narrow horizon of their local environments. The methods employed by this class of farmers in cultivating the soil are crude and primitive. The wooden plow used by the Spaniards and Greeks a thousand years ago, furnishes the model for the implement used by these people in this twentieth century. It is made by mortising one piece of a small tree trunk into another, at an angle of about forty-five degrees. A piece of iron is usually fastened over the point of the portion that is intended to stir the ground. Oxen, attached by a wooden yoke fastened to their horns with rawhide thongs, are employed in drawing the plows. A stick serves as a handle, and holding on to the crude implement with one hand, the other used in directing the oxen, the plowman manages to scratch the ground, but is never able to stir the soil to any depth. When the plowing is done and the grain planted or sown, some branches of trees serve as a drag for covering it. Forks for handling grain and hay are made from branches of trees.

The grain is harvested with reap hooks, and the threshing is done with animals. The wheat or barley is placed upon the ground within a circular enclosure. A number of animals, usually young mares from the farm, are turned into the enclosure, and one or more men mounted upon strong horses, follow them around, shouting, whipping and pursuing them over the grain until the tramping of hoofs has crushed the grain from the straw. Then comes the process of separating the chaff from the grain. This, as are all other methods employed in cultivating and preparing products of the farm for market, is curious and primitive. The wheat and chaff are placed in baskets, which men hold in their hands above their heads allowing the contents to empty slowly. As it falls the chaff and refuse are carried to one side by the wind, leaving the grain, which is heavier and which falls directly to the ground, clean and ready for the market.

Nearly all the land occupied and cultivated by this class of farmers is what is known as “campo de rulo” (dry hill land), which constitutes the greater part of agricultural Chile. The only moisture it has is from the three or four months’ rainfall from June to October. For about half the year these hill lands are brown, sear and desolate looking, but in the autumn, winter and spring, they are covered with a mantle of rich verdure, presenting a landscape scene that is attractive and prepossessing. During the rainy season the mud is deep, roads are often impassable, bridges are carried away by the swift current of the streams and there is little communication between different communities or between country and city.

The theory of these hill farmers is to get as much out of the soil as possible, without expense. The land is never fertilized, and crops are grown alternate years. The plowing is done after the rains set in in the autumn, and the soil being clay, remains very hard and lumpy. This plowed land, called “barbecho,” is left over the winter, the rains having the effect of pulverizing and putting it in condition for the sowing or planting for the next season. Oxen are used for plowing, and it is a novel sight to see a large number of those slow, plodding beasts winding about the hills dragging the crude plows. Fifty yoke of oxen are often engaged in plowing on one hacienda. This method of cultivating is employed until the soil becomes so worn that it will not produce a satisfactory crop. It is then let stand for several years until nature rejuvenates it, and it is again put into service. The grain is harvested by hand, and brought from the hills in primitive wooden carts, or upon the heads of peons. The general appearance of the soil would indicate that this hill land is valueless for agricultural purposes, but it produces annually a large per cent. of the agricultural products of the country, besides maintaining many horses, cattle and sheep.