CHAPTER VII

THE PATAYAN CULTURE

The prehistoric people who lived in the valley of the Colorado River below the Grand Canyon are the least well known in the Southwest, for most information about them has been derived only from surface surveys. Originally, the term _Yuman_ was applied to these people, for Indians speaking a Yuman language were found there by the first white men to visit the area.[35] Some archaeologists still use this term, and it is commonly applied to the culture found in the lower Colorado River basin and adjacent areas in California.[116] Others feel that it is unwise to apply a linguistic term to a prehistoric culture and use the term _Patayan_, a Walapai word meaning “the old people.”[16] It is postulated that the Patayan or Yuman is a basic culture or root to which should be given the same status as the Anasazi and Hohokam.

A large population was found in this area when it was visited by Father Kino in 1700, and it is thought that there must have been a great concentration of population in this fertile valley and delta for a long time. In the lower basin of the Colorado River and in the desert area which adjoins it, has been found evidence of ancient people who worked in stone but did not make pottery.[115] A period followed in which more territory was occupied and in which pottery was made. The finding of datable pieces of trade wares in the valley indicates a period of occupation of some 1500 years by people familiar with ceramics.[116]

Archaeologists studying the Patayan or Yuman culture encounter many difficulties. The culture seems to be characterized by a great poverty of material remains, possibly because of a greater use of perishable materials which have not been preserved. Also, until Boulder Dam was built, the river overflowed its banks every year and covered the land with a layer of silt, thus burying much evidence of occupation.[17]

In western and northwestern Arizona, the portion of this area which lies within the scope of this book, the one group of people which has been more or less definitely assigned to the Patayan culture is known only from the finding of distinctive, brown utility-wares. The main center of this tribe seems to have been in the Colorado River valley below Black Canyon.

There are also two other groups of northwestern Arizona which may, or may not, prove to be manifestations of the Patayan pattern. The area below the Grand Canyon and north of the San Francisco Mountains, bounded on the east by the Little Colorado River and on the west by the Grand Wash Cliffs, was occupied between about 700 and 1100 A.D. by a group of people to which the name _Cohonina_ has been applied.[16] These people lived both in deep and in very shallow pit houses with walls made of timber. It has been suggested that the deep pit houses may represent a Sinagua trait and that the near-surface houses were the true Cohonina form. Masonry was used in the construction of some of the deep pit houses and granaries and forts. The latter are large rectangular buildings with thick walls and parapets which were probably loop-holed. The building of such structures would suggest unsettled conditions. Some time after 1100 A.D., masonry pueblos were built.

Cohonina pottery was a gray ware made by the paddle-and-anvil process, sometimes scraped for final finishing, and fired in a reducing atmosphere. Red paint was often applied over the surface of the vessel after firing. It is impermanent and is commonly called “fugitive red”. Occasionally crude designs were applied with a thin black paint. Jars were the most common form, but some bowls were also made. Arrowheads were of a distinctive type. Cohonina points are slender and roughly triangular, although sometimes the maximum breadth is above the base. They are serrated and unnotched. Little is known of methods of disposing of the dead. It is suspected that cremation was practiced, but that the bones were not gathered after burning.

To the south in the vicinity of Prescott, Arizona, between about 900 and 1000 A.D., lived another group of people.[16] They too built some masonry forts and made gray, paddle-and-anvil pottery with a coarse temper containing much mica. Decorations were in black paint. The firing atmosphere was poorly controlled, and there is a variation in color from gray to orange or red, although the paste is the same.

If all this seems needlessly confusing, it must be remembered that even the archaeologists most intimately concerned with the problem are confused too. Only the most fragmentary evidence has been found, but they know that an important chapter in the prehistory of the Southwest lies in the valley of the Colorado River and adjacent areas. They know that eventually they will be able to read it, and, as a result, they will have a greatly improved perspective in their attempts to analyze the whole of prehistoric life in the Southwest. Before the final pages are deciphered, however, so much remains to be done that very likely there will be even more confusion before there is clarification.

CONCLUSION

In the preceding chapters an attempt has been made to summarize our present knowledge of the prehistory of the great area called the Southwest. Although the Southwest is possibly the best known area in America, we have barely scratched the surface and great discoveries lie ahead. For the present there are many gaps in our knowledge. Doubtless in many cases, data have been incorrectly interpreted. Archaeological opinions are by no means unanimous on all points. In the years to come, other archaeologists with greater knowledge and more refined techniques will reveal new pages of prehistory and re-interpret many of those which their predecessors have tried to decipher. The findings of all science must be regarded, “not as rigid dogma, but as reasonable approximation to truth, certain to be largely extended and modified in the future.”[2] Although there is yet much to be learned and much to be reevaluated, a great deal has already been accomplished in the realm of Southwestern archaeology. Through scattered clues, carefully assembled and painstakingly studied and correlated it is at least possible to see something of the growth and development of unfamiliar cultures.

Inevitably certain questions are asked of those who devote themselves to such work. “What good is archaeology?” “Why is it important to know these things?” The best answer seems to be still another question. “Are we sufficiently sure of the worth of our own achievements to deny the value of trying to reconstruct another chapter of human history, even if we have nothing more than pottery and stone to guide us?”[3] According to our standards the prehistoric inhabitants of the Southwest did not achieve civilization. Still, there might be something to be learned from people so uncivilized that they believed that the cultivation of the land, the creation of beautiful as well as useful objects, and keeping in harmony with the great natural forces of the universe, were more important than the subjugation or destruction of their fellow men.

GLOSSARY

Aborigine—The native inhabitants of a country; in America, the Indians.

Apocynum—A plant, related to the milkweed, which provided fibers used in weaving.

Archaeology—The scientific study of the material remains of human life and human activities in prehistoric or ancient times.

Artifact—A product of human workmanship. Commonly used by archaeologists in speaking of prehistoric tools, implements, etc.

Atlatl—An Aztec word meaning spear-thrower. Atlatls are throwing sticks which have a handle on one end and on the other a spur which fits into a pit or cup drilled into the basal end of a dart shaft. When the dart is thrown the atlatl remains in the hand.

Basic Culture—See _Culture_.

Caliche—A crust or succession of crusts of calcium carbonate that forms within or on top of the soil of arid or semi-arid regions.

Ceramic—Pertaining to pottery and its materials.

Chronology—The study of the method of arranging past events or the material representing them in a sequence of their happenings in relation to years or in relation to each other.

Cist—An oval or circular pit, often slab-lined, used for storage. Cists sometimes served a secondary purpose as depositories for the dead.

Clan—A social group made up of a number of households, the heads of which claim descent in either the male or female line from a common ancestor.

Cloisonne—A surface decoration produced by outlining a design with strips of flat wire and filling the interstices with enamel.

Complex—A group of related traits or characteristics which combine to form a complete activity, process, or cultural unit.

Compound—In the Orient, a wall or fenced enclosure containing a house, buildings, etc. The term is also used to describe the walled enclosures built during Classic Hohokam times.

Corrugated Pottery—Pottery in which the alternate ridges and depressions resulting from a coiling-and-pinching technique of manufacture have not been obliterated.

Coursed Masonry—Masonry constructed of stones lying on approximately level beds.

Cranium—Skull (Plural: Crania)

Culture—The total activities and beliefs of a group of individuals which may be separated from other groups on the basis of differences in complexes and original differences in geographical and chronological positions. In an archaeological context, the material remains of a group of people which represent traits which they had in common, which differentiated them from other people. A _Basic Culture_ is, as the name implies, one which provides a base or foundation for succeeding cultures. It is essentially a cultural root from which may spring stems and branches.

Deflector—An upright slab, standing between fireplace and ventilator in a pit house or kiva, designed to protect the fire from inrushing air.

Dendrochronology—A system of establishing an absolute count of years by utilizing the pattern combinations of tree-rings.

Diffusion—The transference of elements of culture from one society to another.

Effigy—An image of a living object.

Ethnology—The scientific study of the cultures of living primitive peoples.

Hatchures—Short, closely spaced, parallel lines used in pottery designs.

Hogan—A Navajo house; one room, domed or conically shaped, made of logs, sometimes with stone side walls, usually covered with earth.

Horizon—In a site, a level or stratum. In a culture, a particular level of development.

Incised—In pottery, grooved in soft clay with a sharp tool.

Jacal—A type of construction in which walls are made of upright poles set at short intervals and heavily plastered with adobe.

Katchinas—Supernatural beings in Pueblo Indian mythology, or masked dancers personifying these beings.

Killed Pottery—Pottery in which a hole has been punched or drilled in order to release the soul or spirit of the vessel which is conceived as being a part of the maker.

Kiva—A ceremonial chamber, usually subterranean and circular.

Mano—A hand stone, usually roughly oblong, used for grinding grains, seeds, etc.

Metate—The grinding stone on which the Mano is rubbed.

Moraine—An accumulation of earth, stones, etc. carried and finally deposited by a glacier.

Oxidizing Atmosphere—Pottery is said to have been fired in an oxidizing atmosphere when air is permitted to circulate around it during the firing process. This leads to an excess of oxygen in the atmosphere and produces pottery in shades of red, brown, or yellow.

Paddle-and-Anvil—A pottery-finishing technique in which coil impressions are obliterated by striking the exterior of the vessel with a paddle while holding a round or mushroom-shaped object, known as an anvil, within the vessel to receive the force of the blow.

Periphery—In archaeological usage, a marginal area, a region lying immediately beyond the boundaries of a specific area.

Pilaster—A square column forming part of a wall.

Phase—This term is used in different ways by different archaeologists. For the purposes of this book, it may be defined as an interval of culture occurring in a specific area at a specific time and associated with a particular culture. It may also be defined as a group of sites with similar determinants.

Polychrome Pottery—Pottery bearing three or more colors.

Plaza—A public square.

Projectile Point—An arrow point, spear point, or dart point.

Reducing Atmosphere—Pottery is said to have been fired in a reducing atmosphere when air is not allowed to circulate around it during the firing process. This results in a reduction of the oxygen content of the atmosphere and produces pottery in shades of white and gray.

Sherd—A fragment of a broken, pottery vessel.

Sipapu—A hole commonly found in the floors of kivas which is symbolic of the mythological place from which, according to creation myths, the first people emerged from the underworld.

Slip—A coating of very fine clay applied to a vessel before firing to give a smooth finish.

Spall—A chip or flake removed from a larger piece of stone.

Stockade—An enclosure made with posts and stakes.

Stratification—The characteristic of being in layers or strata and the processes by which such material is deposited. A single layer is called a _Stratum_, more than one, _Strata_. When undisturbed the lowest stratum is the oldest since it was laid down first.

Trait—Any single element of culture.

Temper—Non-plastic material added to clay from which pottery is made to prevent cracking.

Twilling—A system of weaving in which the woof thread is carried over one and under two or more warp threads, producing diagonal lines or ribs on the surface of the fabric or basket.

Twining—A system of weaving in which splints or threads are intertwined around a foundation of radiating rods or threads.

Tuff—Solidified volcanic ash.

Typology—The study of any system of arrangement according to type.

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Conjectures on the Independent Development of the Mogollon Culture: American Antiquity, Vol. VII, No. 1, Menasha, Wisconsin. Roberts, Frank H. H., Jr. (104) 1929. Recent Archeological Developments in the Vicinity of El Paso, Texas: Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 81, No. 7, Washington, D. C. (105) 1929. Shabik’eschee Village, A Late Basket Maker Site in the Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, Bulletin 92, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C. (106) 1930. Early Pueblo Ruins in the Piedra District, southwestern Colorado: Bulletin 96, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C. (107) 1931. The Ruins at Kiatuthlanna, eastern Arizona: Bulletin 100, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C. (108) 1932. The Village of the Great Kivas on the Zuni Reservation, New Mexico, Bulletin 111, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C. (109) 1935. A Folsom Complex. Preliminary Report on Investigations at the Lindenmeier Site in northern Colorado: Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 94, Washington, D. C. (110) 1935. A Survey of Southwestern Archeology: American Anthropologist, Vol. XXXVII, No. 1, pp. 1-33, Menasha, Wisconsin. (111) 1937. Archaeology in the Southwest: American Antiquity, Vol. III, No. 1, pp. 3-33, Menasha, Wisconsin. (112) 1939. Archeological Remains in the Whitewater District, eastern Arizona; Part I, House Types: Bulletin 121, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C. (113) 1939. The Development of a Unit-Type Dwelling: Hewett Anniversary Volume “So Live The Works of Men”, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico. (114) 1942. Archeological and Geological Investigations in the San Jon District, eastern New Mexico: Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 103, No. 4, Washington, D. C. Rogers, Malcolm J. (115) 1939. Early Lithic Industries of the Lower Basin of the Colorado River and Adjacent Desert Areas: San Diego Museum Papers, No. 3, San Diego, California. (116) 1945. An Outline of Yuman Prehistory: Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Vol. I, No. 2, pp. 167-198, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Sayles, E. B. (117) 1935. An Archaeological Survey of Texas: Medallion Papers, No. XVII, Gila Pueblo, Globe, Arizona. Sayles, E. B. and Ernst Antevs (118) 1941. The Cochise Culture: Medallion Papers, No. XXIV, Gila Pueblo, Globe, Arizona. Seltzer, Carl C. (119) 1944. Racial Prehistory in the Southwest and the Hawikuh Zunis: Peabody Museum Papers, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Stallings, W. S., Jr. (120) 1937. Southwestern Dated Ruins: I, Tree-Ring Bulletin, Vol. IV, No. 2, Tucson, Arizona. (121) 1939. Dating Prehistoric Ruins by Tree-Rings: General Series, Bulletin 8, Laboratory of Anthropology, Santa Fe, New Mexico. (122) 1941. A Basketmaker II Date from Cave du Pont, Utah: Tree-Ring Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. 1, Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, Tucson, Arizona. Steward, Julian H. (123) 1933. Archaeological Problems of the Northern Periphery of the Southwest: Bulletin No. 5, Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff, Ariz. Underhill, Ruth (124) 1947. First Penthouse Dwellers of America: Second Revised Edition, Laboratory of Anthropology, Santa Fe, N. M. Watson, Don (125) 1946. Cliff Palace; the Story of an Ancient City: Mesa Verde National Park Museum, Mesa Verde, Colorado. Weatherwax, Paul (126) 1936. The Origin of the Maize Plant and Maize Agriculture in Ancient America: Symposium on Prehistoric Agriculture, Bulletin 296, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N. M. Weltfish, Gene (127) 1932. Preliminary Classification of Prehistoric Southwestern Basketry: Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections: Vol. 87, No. 7, Washington, D. C. (128) 1932. Problems in the Study of Ancient and Modern Basketmakers: American Anthropologist, N. S. Vol. XXXIV, No. 1, pp. 108-117, Menasha, Wisconsin. Woodward, Arthur (129) 1931. The Grewe Site: Occasional Papers, No. 1, Los Angeles Museum of History, Science and Art, Los Angeles, California. Wormington, H. M. (130) 1944. Ancient Man in North America, (Second Revised Edition): Popular Series, No. 4, Colorado Museum of Natural History, Denver, Colorado.

APPENDIX Outstanding Exhibit-Sites, Modern Pueblos, Local Museums

by ERIK K. REED _Regional Archaeologist_ _National Park Service_

After reading about the prehistoric inhabitants of the Southwest many people feel that they would like to visit the places where they lived, examine examples of their ancient arts and crafts, and see their present-day descendants. No description can produce the feeling that one experiences when viewing the imposing ruins found in our National Monuments and Parks. Even a short time spent looking at pottery and other artifacts in a museum will give a far better idea of their appearance than will photographs, drawings, or the most detailed descriptions. A visit to a modern pueblo makes it possible to visualize something of the life of bygone centuries and to think of the ancient inhabitants of the area as living, breathing people rather than as lifeless specimens. The following lists have been prepared in an effort to help those who wish to visit the Southwest and to learn about its people through their own experience.

I. OUTSTANDING EXHIBIT-SITES The San Juan Anasazi Culture

MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK.

Great cliff-dwellings and open pueblos of the Classic period. Pit-house, mesa-top villages and cave remains of earlier periods, Modified Basketmaker and Developmental Pueblo. One of the major foci of the Anasazi culture of 300-1300 A. D., and the most accessible and best-exhibited, interpreted by caravan-tours and an outstanding museum. Paved entrance-road from Highway U. S.-160 between Mancos and Cortez, Colorado. Lodge with adequate accommodations open May-October.

CHACO CANYON NATIONAL MONUMENT.

The greatest concentration of open pueblo ruins in a valley floor, another of the major foci of prehistoric Anasazi civilization. The famous huge buildings, Pueblo Bonito, Chetro Ketl, Pueblo del Arroyo, etc.; a restored Great Kiva, an excavated Modified-Basketmaker village; and innumerable small pueblo sites. Undeveloped museum. Very restricted accommodations. In the middle of northwestern New Mexico, 64 miles north of Thoreau (which is on Highway U. S.-66) and 64 miles south of Aztec, New Mexico (on U. S.-550); 25 miles from nearest paved road (State 55, Cuba to Bloomfield).

AZTEC RUINS NATIONAL MONUMENT.

An excavated great pueblo of the Classic period, twelfth and thirteenth centuries, built between 1100 and 1125 A. D., with a completely restored Great Kiva; additional unexcavated pueblo ruins. Lying between Chaco Canyon and the Mesa Verde, these pueblos on the Animas River partake of both phases of Anasazi culture. A small museum adjoining the main ruin. Located close to Highway U. S.-550 and the town of Aztec, New Mexico.

CANYON DE CHELLY NATIONAL MONUMENT.

Striking cliff-dwellings and very early remains. In a spectacular setting of great red-rock canyons occupied by picturesque Navajo Indians. Tree-ring dates from one of the major sites, Mummy Cave, range from 348 A. D.—the earliest date in the San Juan drainage—to 1284 A. D., the next-to-last. No museum. The monument and canyon area extends east of Chinle, Arizona, in the Navajo Indian Reservation. Chinle is 100 miles from Gallup, New Mexico, or seventy-five miles (unpaved) from Chambers, Arizona (which is west of Gallup on Highway U. S.-66). Not accessible in bad weather. An excellent lodge (Thunderbird Ranch, Chinle, Arizona), but rather restricted facilities.

NAVAJO NATIONAL MONUMENT.

Betatakin and Keetseel, great cliff-pueblos of the thirteenth century, picturesquely situated in huge caves in the red sandstone walls of the Tsegi Canyons, west of Kayenta, Arizona, in the Navajo Indian Reservation. No museum. No tourist accommodations. (As in all the other national monuments listed, however, a custodian on duty the year around, resident at headquarters above Betatakin.) Another 100 miles, of rather bad road, from Chinle to Betatakin; or 135 miles from Flagstaff—sixty miles north on paved Highway U. S.-89, about the same distance on fairly good unsurfaced reservation road, and the last dozen miles a quite rough trail. Not accessible in winter or in rainy weather.

The White Mountains Region

KINISHBA.

A large pueblo of the period 1000-1400, largely excavated and partially restored by the Arizona State Museum, in the Apache Indian Reservation near Fort Apache, Arizona, twenty miles east of Highway U. S.-60. No accommodations.

The Rio Grande Area

BANDELIER NATIONAL MONUMENT.

Unusual cliff-ruins and open sites in beautiful Frijoles Canyon, in the Pajarito Plateau, west of Santa Fe and south of Los Alamos, New Mexico, seventeen miles from paved highway. Museum. Small lodge open May-October.

PUYE.

Large partially-restored pueblo and small cliff-ruins, in the Pajarito Plateau, north of Los Alamos, on the Santa Clara Indian Reservation, fifteen miles from Espanola, New Mexico.

CORONADO STATE MONUMENT.

Two extensive adobe pueblos, Kuaua and Puaray, the former partially restored. Museum. Across the Rio Grande from Bernalillo, New Mexico, just off paved Highway State 44.

PECOS STATE MONUMENT.

Ruins of the great pueblo, finally abandoned in 1838, and of the partially-restored Spanish mission of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Close to Highway U. S.-85, about twenty-five miles southeast of Santa Fe, near modern town of Pecos, New Mexico.

GRAN QUIVIRA NATIONAL MONUMENT.

Ruins of the pueblo and mission of Humanas, abandoned about 1675. No museum; no accommodations. By a poor road twenty-five miles south of Mountainair, New Mexico, which is on Highway U. S.-60.

ABO and QUARAI STATE MONUMENTS.

Sister missions to Humanas, with extensive unexcavated pueblo ruins. No museums. Close to U. S.-60 and Mountainair, New Mexico.

The Salado Complex

TONTO NATIONAL MONUMENT.

Two fourteenth century cliff-dwellings high in a small canyon overlooking Roosevelt Lake and the Tonto Basin. These well-preserved ruins have yielded fine and unusual archaeological material: the striking Salado polychrome pottery, a variety of expertly-made cotton textiles, even a lot of lima beans. Very small museum exhibit. No accommodations at the monument. Located near Roosevelt, Arizona, and the Apache Trail (State Highway 88).

CASA GRANDE NATIONAL MONUMENT.

A unique great adobe structure, sole survivor of the large pueblo-like towers and compounds built by the Salado in the Gila Basin in the fourteenth century. The site includes several adobe compounds as well as the Casa Grande itself, and also earlier _Hohokam_ remains—unexcavated ball-courts and pit-houses. Small museum. On State Highway 87 close to Coolidge, Arizona.

PUEBLO GRANDE CITY PARK.

A complex mound, partially excavated, of the late period in the Phoenix area. On E. Washington Avenue, Phoenix.

Sinagua Sites

WUPATKI NATIONAL MONUMENT.

Large and small pueblos of 1100-1300 and earlier pit-houses; several Anasazi sites as well as Sinagua—the frontier between these two cultures was not the Little Colorado, but lay some distance west into the Wupatki area, and varied from time to time. Still other cultural influences are observed. One unique feature is a masonry-walled ball-court beside Wupatki Pueblo and near the monument headquarters, fifteen miles east of U. S.-89 and forty-five miles from Flagstaff, Arizona. No museum. No accommodations at the monument.

WALNUT CANYON NATIONAL MONUMENT.

Very small cliff-dwellings in sandstone ledges of a narrow chasm twelve miles east of Flagstaff, not far from Highway 66. No exhibits installed in Museum. No accommodations at the monument.

TUZIGOOT NATIONAL MONUMENT.

An excavated and partially restored hilltop pueblo, which reached its maximum in the fourteenth century. Comparatively large museum housing extensive collection close to Clarkdale, Arizona, and readily accessible from U. S.-89.

MONTEZUMA CASTLE NATIONAL MONUMENT.

A five-story cliff-dwelling of the same period as Tuzigoot pueblo, near Camp Verde, Arizona, and readily accessible from Highway U. S.-89. Small museum. No accommodations at the monument. Also included in this monument is Montezuma Well, nine miles northeast, with small cliff-dwellings in a limestone sinkhole containing a “bottomless” lake. Highly unusual archaeological features at Montezuma Well are cist-graves undercut in soft limestone, and travertine-encrusted prehistoric irrigation ditches.

II. MODERN PUEBLOS ON (AT LEAST APPROXIMATELY) PRE-SPANISH LOCATIONS

ORAIBI on the third or northwesternmost Hopi mesa, materially unchanged for over 600 years, and in a general sense, the other older HOPI INDIAN pueblos—WALPI on First Mesa, SHONGOPOVI and MISHONGNOVI on the middle mesa—which have shifted their locations during the historic period from valley floors to mesa tops. The villages of Hano (Tewa) and Sichomovi on First Mesa, and probably also Shipaulovi on Second Mesa, are eighteenth century foundations. Hotevilla, Bakavi and New Orabi (Kikhochomovi) date from the break-up of Oraibi only about fifty years ago. Toreva and Polacca are purely modern towns. Good dirt roads to the Hopi country from Gallup, Winslow, and Flagstaff. No tourist accommodations.

ZUNI PUEBLO, the one surviving, or reestablished, town of the six early-historic “cities of Cibola.” Fair road, forty miles south from Gallup, New Mexico. Very limited tourist accommodations.

ACOMA on its great mesa, one of the most picturesque of all, little changed since the seventeenth century when the large mission church was built. Fair road, thirteen miles south of U. S.-66, about sixty miles west of Albuquerque.

ISLETA, on Highway U. S.-85 about ten miles south of Albuquerque.

The five Keres pueblos southwest of Santa Fe—SANTO DOMINGO, SAN FELIPE, and COCHITI along the Rio Grande north of Bernalillo, west of U. S.-85; ZIA and SANTA ANA on the Jemez River, northwest of Bernalillo and across the stream from State-44.

JEMEZ PUEBLO, twenty-five miles northwest of Bernalillo on State Highway 4.

The five Tewa pueblos north of Santa Fe: TESUQUE, on U. S.-64-285; NAMBE, in the foothills to the northeast; SAN ILDEFONSO, on the east bank of the Rio Grande; SANTA CLARA, on the west bank just below Espanola; SAN JUAN, at Chamita, New Mexico.

TAOS, the one modern terraced pueblo, close to Taos, New Mexico, and PICURIES in the foothills to the south.

In the Rio Grande drainage, Laguna and Sandia are historic pueblos only. Laguna was a new foundation, under Spanish direction, about 1700. Sandia was re-established on or near an earlier location, in 1745-1750 by Tiwa Indians brought back from the Hopi country by Spanish priests, after abandonment fifty years earlier of the several Tiwa pueblos between Bernalillo and Albuquerque.

III. LOCAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUMS IN THE SOUTHWEST

Santa Fe: The Laboratory of Anthropology. The Museum of New Mexico. Albuquerque: The University of New Mexico Anthropology Museum. Tucson: The Arizona State Museum at the University of Arizona. Phoenix: The Heard Museum. Grand Canyon National Park: The Wayside Museum of Archaeology. Petrified Forest National Monument: Small branch museums at Painted Desert Inn and Puerco Ruin. Flagstaff: The Museum of Northern Arizona

FOOTNOTES

[1]Ref. [72], p. 433.

[2]Ref. [14] p. 281.

[3]Ref. [31] p. 269.

INDEX

A Abandonment, of Northern Frontier, 73, 76, 80-84, 90, 91 Abo State Monument, 183 Acoma, 185 Agriculture, 37, 55, 70, 94, 118, 142, 148, 156; _see also_ Beans, Corn, Cotton, Irrigation Ackmen-Lowry Area, 62 Alcove Houses, 163 Alkali Ridge, Utah, 63, 65, 71 Allantown, Arizona, 63, 65 Anasazi, 27-117; _see also_ Basketmaker and Pueblo Ancient Cultures, 20-26 Animals Extinct, 20, 22, 24 Hunted, 20, 22, 37, 38, 70, 121 Domesticated; see Dogs and Horses Antler Artifacts, 103, 105 Apaches, 81, 105, 114, 144 Archaeology Defined, 170 Development of, 11 Architecture, 61, 64, 76, 78, 79, 86, 91, 102, 140, 153, 155, 157, 161; _see also_ Ball Courts, Cists, Forts, Houses, Kivas, Pithouses Arrow points, see Projectile Points Arrow-shaft smoothers, 104, 105, 139 Arroya Cutting, 81, 82, 87, 91 Athapaskans, 105-106 Atlatls, 38-40, 55, 152, 170 Awls, 41, 152, 155, 161 Axes, 55, 70, 73, 75, 104, 105, 139, 155, 157 Aztec Ruins, 89, 137, 182

B Bags Cedar Bast, 43, 44 Skin, 44 Twined-woven, 42-44, 45 Ball, rubber, 133 Ball Courts, 127, 132, 133, 139, 166 Bandelier National Monument, 109, 110, 183 Basketmaker and Modified Basketmaker Culture, 27-57 Agriculture, 37 Area, 29, 49 Basketry, 40-42, 54, 55, 56 Burials, 29, 30, 45, 46, 55, 56 Cists, 36, 44, 56 Clothing, 31, 33, 56 Dates, 27, 49 Figurines, 54 Food, 37, 38, 40, 55 Houses, 35, 36, 49-52 Ornaments, 34, 56 Pottery, 44, 45, 53 Physical Appearance, 31, 59 Tools and Implements, 36, 37, 40, 41, 55 Weapons, 38-40, 55 Weaving, 41-43 Summaries, 56, 57 Basketmaker Period, 27-48 Basketry, 22, 40-42, 54, 55, 56, 69, 89, 105, 134 Bat Woman House, 99 Beads, _see_ Ornaments Beans, 55, 70, 118 Bear Ruin, 155-157 Bells, 137 Betatakin, 98, 99, 182 Biscuit Ware, _see_ Pottery Bluff Ruin, 150 Bone Artifacts Awls, 41, 152, 155, 161 Beads, 34 Gaming Pieces, 46, 47, 72 Hair Ornaments, 34, 137 Tubes, 124, 137 Bow and Arrow, 40, 55, 70, 124, 152 Bracelets, _see_ Ornaments Brushes Hair, 35 Paint, 53 Burials, 29, 30, 45, 46, 55, 56, 70-72, 75, 90-95, 96, 101, 138, 140, 152, 153, 154, 156, 159, 161 Burnet Cave, 21 Butler Wash, Arizona, 27

C Cactus Fruit, 37, 137 Cameron Creek Village, 158 Canals, 119, 121, 125, 127, 132, 138 Canyon de Chelly, 182 Canyon del Muerto, 56, 182 Casa Grande, 139, 140, 141, 142, 184 Cavate Dwellings, 109, 110 Chaco Canyon, 63, 84-91, 96, 97, 101, 181 Children, 46, 70, 71 Chronology, _see_ Dates Cibola, Cities of, 113 Cists, 36, 44, 56, 72, 170 Clans, 64, 170 Classic Hohokam Period, 120, 137-144 Classic Pueblo Period, _see_ Great Pueblo Period “Cliff Dwellers” 76, 91 Cliff Palace, 91-93, 96 Climate, 12, 17, 80, 81, 82, 87, 96, 118, 121, 142; _see also_ Arroyo Cutting, Dendrochronology, Droughts Clovis, New Mexico, 21 Clubs, 38-40 Cochise Culture, 22, 119, 122, 148, 151, 156 Cochiti, 185 Cohonina Branch, 168 Colonial Hohokam, 120, 124-132, 153 Comanches, 114 Conquest, Spanish, 113 Cooking, 40, 156 Copper, _see_ Bells Corn, 37, 55, 70, 93, 118, 121, 122, 152 Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, 113, 114 Coronado State Monument, 183 Corrugated Ware; _see_ Pottery Cotton, 69, 70, 73, 89, 134, 143, 144 Cradles, 46 Cranial Deformation, 60, 75, 152 Cremation, 96, 118, 125, 129, 134, 140, 155, 157 Culinary Ware, _see_ Pottery Culture, defined, 170

D Dance Courts, 62, 65 Dart Points; _see_ Projectile Points Dates Basketmaker, 27 Cochise, 22 Folsom, 21 Gypsum Cave, 22 Hohokam, 120, 124, 132, 137, 144 Modified Basketmaker, 49 Mogollon, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 158, 161 Navajos, 106 Patayan, 168 Pueblo, 59, 76, 108 Rosa, 75 San Jon, 22 Sandia, 20 Sinagua, 163, 164, 165 Yuma Points, 22 Deformation, of Skulls, 60, 75, 152 Dendrochronology, 13, 14-17, 80, 150 Desert Province, 118 Developmental-Pueblo Period, 57-76, 102 Dice, _see_ Gaming Pieces Diffusion, 37, 72 Dogs, 46, 47, 70, 75 Douglass, A. E., 14-17 Droughts, 80, 81, 96, 97, 115, 165 Durango, Excavations near, 27, 35

E Ear Plugs, 124, 125 Effigy Vessels, 88, 124, 134, 135 Egypt, 29, 125 El Paso, 115 Esteban, 113 Ethnology, 17-18 Etching, 136, 137

F Fabrics, _see_ Weaving Feather Cloth, 31, 55, 69, 89, 105 Figurines, 54, 72, 73, 122, 123, 128, 133 Firing, of Pottery, 53 Flutes, 56 Folsom Complex, 20, 21 Forts, 144, 168 Fremont River Culture, 73 Fugitive Red, _see_ Pottery Fur Cloth, 31, 33, 55, 69

G Galaz Ruin, 158 Gallina Phase, 104, 105 Game, Played in Ball Courts, 127 Gaming Pieces, 46, 47, 72 Geology, 20, 21 Georgetown Phase, 152, 153 Glazed Ware, _see_ Pottery Governador Area, 75, 105, 115 Granaries, 49, 61, 63, 75, 164, 168 Grewe Site, 125 Great Pueblo Period, 76-107 Grinding Stones, _see_ Manos and Metates Gypsum Cave, 22

H Hair Dressing, 35, 40 Use of, 33, 35 Hands, Burial of, 56 Harris Village, 152, 154 Hawikuh, 113 Historic Pueblo Period, 64, 107, 108 Hoes, 70, 135, 155, 161 Hohokam Culture, 118-147 Agriculture, 118, 142 Area, 118, 132 Ball Courts, 127, 132, 133, 139 Basketry, 134 Cremations, 118, 123, 134, 140 Dates, 120, 124, 132, 137, 144 Figurines, 122, 123, 128, 133 Food, 121 Houses, 121, 127, 132, 140, 142 Mirrors, 129, 130, 134, 139, 153 Ornaments, 130, 132, 135, 139 Pottery, 118, 122, 128, 133, 150 Shell Work, 130, 132, 135, 136, 137, 139 Stone Work, 123, 124, 129, 130, 134, 135, 139 Summary, 146 Weaving, 134, 143, 144 Hopi Area, 101, 108, 115, 116, 185 Horses, 82, 114 Houses, 35, 36, 49-52, 61, 62, 63, 72, 73, 79, 86-88, 91-93, 102, 104, 105, 108, 118, 121, 127, 132, 138, 140, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 163

I Introduction, 11-19 Irrigation, 37, 81, 94, 95, 119, 121, 125, 132, 138, 142, 144 Isleta, 185

J Jacal Construction, 61, 62, 63 Jemez, 186 Jewelry, _see_ Ornaments

K Kayenta Area, 38, 99-101 Keet Seel, 99, 182 Kiatuthlana, 62, 71 Kihus, 99 Killing, of Pottery, 159 Kinishba, 101, 183 Kino, Father, 167 Kivas, 18, 61, 63, 64, 73, 84, 86, 93, 94, 99, 108, 110, 156, 158 Great Kivas, 86, 96, 97, 101 Knives, 105, 161

L Laguna, 186 La Plata Area, 62 Largo Phase, 102-105 Largo-Gallina Phase, 102-105 Lead Ore, 129 Lindenmeier Site, 21 Little Colorado Area, 107, 137 Los Muertos, 139, 140 Lowry Ruin, 63, 96, 97

M Manos, 40, 70, 157 Mattocks Ruin, 158 Mauls, 55, 73, 155 Maya, 125, 127, 128 Mesa Verde, 76, 91-96, 97, 99, 181 Metates, 36, 40, 70, 73, 93, 135, 151, 153, 155, 157, 159 Mexico, 137, 144, 161 Mimbres Phase, 102, 152, 158-161 Mirrors, 129, 130, 134, 139, 153 Mishongnovi, 185 Moccasins, 45, 73 Modified Basketmaker Period 48-57; _see also_ Basketmaker Mogollon Culture, 148-162 Agriculture, 148, 156 Area, 149 Bone Work, 151, 152, 155, 161 Burials, 152, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161 Clothing, 161 Dates, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156 Houses, 150, 151, 152, 153-155, 156, 157, 158 Hunting, 151, 156 Ornaments, 157, 161 Physical Types, 152, 153, 156, 157, 161 Pottery, 54, 150, 151, 153, 156, 159, 160 Shell Work, 157 Stone Work, 148, 151, 155, 157, 161 Summary, 161, 162 Theories of Origin, 148 Mogollon Village, 152, 154 Montezuma Castle, 165, 166, 185 Mortars and Pestles, 135, 161 Mortuary Offerings, 30, 45, 56, 70, 71, 124, 128, 129, 140, 152, 155, 156, 158, 159 Mosaic Work, 56, 90, 124, 129, 130, 135 Mummies, 29, 30, 45

N Nambe, 186 Nampeyo, 108, 110 Navajo National Monument, 182 Navajos, 81, 104, 105, 106, 114, 115 Nets, 37 Nevada, 22, 73 Nipple-shaped Objects, 54, 72 Niza, Fray Marcos de, 113 Nomads, 73, 81, 82, 105, 106, 114, 115, 117 Northern Periphery, 72, 73 Nose Buttons or Plugs, 135

O Oraibi, 16, 185 Ornaments, 34, 56, 69, 89, 90, 130, 132, 135, 139, 157, 161; _see also_ Bone, Shell and Stone artifacts, Turquoise Oxidizing Atmosphere, 53

P Paints, 53, 66 Palettes, 123, 124, 129, 134, 157 Papagueria, 142, 144 Papago Indians, 142, 144 Parallel Flaked Points, 22 Patayan Culture, 164, 167, 168 Pathology, 45, 71 Pecos Classification, 29, 57, 76, 107 Pecos Pueblo, 110, 111, 114 Pecos State Monument, 183 Peripheral Regions, 72-75 Physical Types, 24, 31, 59, 93, 118, 152, 153, 156, 157, 158 Pictographs, 34, 47, 73, 116 Picuries, 186 Piedra Region, 62 Pima Indians, 144 Pine Lawn Phase, 151, 152 Pioneer Hohokam, 120-124 Pipes, 45, 69, 89, 104, 105, 124, 153, 155, 157 Pithouses, 49-52, 61, 62, 63, 72, 73, 75, 102, 104, 105, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 163, 168 Planting Sticks, 37 Plateau Area, defined, 27 Polychrome, _see_ Pottery Pope, 114, 115 Pottery, Atmospheres for Firing, 53 Biscuit Ware, 112 Black-on-gray, 53, 73, 168 Black-on-red, 66, 75, 112 Black-on-white, 65, 75, 88, 95, 100, 102, 105, 112, 157, 159, 160 Black-on-yellow, 108 Brown, 122, 128, 150, 151, 153, 163, 167 Buff, 128, 138, 153, 156 Burnished Buff, 151, 159 Coiled and Scraped, 52 Corrugated, 66, 68, 75, 88, 95, 100, 102, 108, 112, 159, 170 Eastern Branch, 66 Firing, 53 Fugitive Red, 54, 72, 168 Glazed, 110, 112 Gray, 53, 65, 72, 122, 156, 168 Importance of, 12 Neck Banded, 68 Origin, Theories of, 44, 53 Paddle-and-anvil, 103, 122 Pointed-bottomed, 103, 104, 106 Polished Red, 138, 151, 153, 159 Polychrome, 100, 101, 102, 108, 112, 113, 122, 139 Red-on-buff, 122, 128, 133, 139 Red-on-gray, 153 Red-on-orange, 65 Slips, 68 Spectrographic Analysis of, 12 Temper, 44, 45, 53, 65 Textured, 53, 155, 157 Unfired, 44, 45, 52 Preface, 3-5 Projectile Points, 70, 124, 129, 130, 135, 139, 153, 155, 157, 161, 168 Pueblo Bonito, 85, 86, 137 Pueblo Culture, 57-117 Agriculture, 69, 70 Area, 59, 84, 107 Basketry, 69, 89 Burials, 70-72, 90, 95, 96, 101 Clothing, 69, 89, 108 Dates, 59, 76, 107 Food, 70 Houses, 61, 62, 63, 79, 86-88, 91-93, 99, 101, 108, 110 Kivas, 61, 63, 64, 84, 86, 93, 94, 96, 97, 99, 101, 108, 110, 112 Ornaments, 69, 70, 89, 90 Physical Types, 59 Pottery, 65-68, 71, 88, 95, 100, 101, 108, 110 Tools and Implements, 70, 73, 75, 93 Weapons, 70 Weaving, 69, 89 Summaries, 75, 106 Pueblo Grande City Park, 184 Puye, 110, 183

Q Quarai State Monument, 183

R Rabbit Sticks; _see_ Clubs Rattles, 40 Rebellion, Pueblo, 113, 114, 115 Reducing Atmosphere, 53 Refugees, 115 Refuse or Rubbish Heaps, 70 Regressive Pueblo Period, 84, 107-115 Religion, 30, 45, 46, 47, 64, 65, 78, 84, 93, 117 Ridge Ruin, 90 Rings, Ball Court, 127, 128 Rio Grande Area, 102, 107, 110 Roosevelt 9:6, 124, 125 Rosa Phase, 75, 165 Rubber Ball, 133

S Salado Culture, 137-144 San Felipe, 185 San Francisco Phase, 153-155 San Ildefonso, 186 San Jon, 22 San Juan, 114, 186 Sandals, 30, 33, 34, 56, 69, 73, 89, 105 Sandia Cave, 20 Sandia Pueblo, 186 Santa Ana, 185 Santa Clara, 186 Santo Domingo, 185 Santa Fe, 114, 115 Scalp, 46 Scoops, 40 Sedentary Hohokam, 120, 124, 132-137 Shell Artifacts Beads, 34, 89, 130, 157, 161 Bracelets, 56, 70, 130, 132, 139, 157, 161 Etched, 136, 137 Painted, 135 Pendants, 89, 130, 161 Needles, 130 Rings, 132 Trumpets, 139 Showlow Ruin, 16 Sinagua People, 163-166 Sipapu, 18, 52 Slips, _see_ Pottery Snaketown Site, 121-124, 150 Snares, 37 Social Organization, 19, 64, 71, 78, 79, 82, 115, 125, 127, 138 Southwest, defined, 11 Spaniards, 113-117 Squash, 37, 70 Starkweather Ruin, 152 Stockades, 75 Stone Artifacts, Axes, 55, 70, 73, 75, 104, 105, 139, 155, 157 Beads, 56, 69, 124, 132, 135, 139 Hoes, 70, 155, 161 Knives, 105, 161 Manos, 40, 70, 157 Mauls, 55, 73, 155 Metates, 36, 40, 70, 73, 93, 135, 151, 153, 155, 157, 159 Mortars and Pestles, 135, 161 Palettes, 123, 124, 129, 134, 157 Projectile Points, 70, 124, 129, 130, 135, 139, 153, 155, 157, 161, 168 Rings, 130 Shaft-Smoothers, 104, 105, 139 Vessels, 123, 124, 130, 135, 139, 157 Stratigraphy, 13 SU Site, 151, 152 Summaries, 56-57, 75-76, 106-107, 146-147, 161-162 Sunset Crater, 164, 166 Swarts Ruin, 158

T Tabeguache Caves, 26, 29 Taos, 186 Temper, _see_ Pottery Tesuque, 186 Texas, 73, 112 Tiguex, 114 Tonto Basin, 137 Tonto National Monument, 184 Towers, 64, 91, 94 Trade, 12, 13, 34 Tree-rings, _see_ Dendrochronology Trumpets, 139 Tubes, _see_ Bone Artifacts Tump Straps, 41, 42 Turkeys, 55, 70, 73, 75, 89, 121, 159 Turquoise, 56, 89, 90, 124, 161 Tuzigoot National Monument, 166, 184 Twined-woven Bags, 42-44, 45, 105 Tyuoni, 110, 111

U Unfired Clay Vessels, 44, 45, 52 Unit Houses, 61, 63, 64, 72, 79 Utes, 114

V Vargas, Diego de, 115 Ventana Cave, 26, 142, 143, 144 Village of the Great Kivas, 101

W Walnut Canyon National Monument, 184 Walpi, 185 Warfare, 40, 71, 79, 80, 82 Weaving, 33, 41-43, 89, 108, 134, 143, 144, 156 Whistles, 46 White Dog Cave, 35 Woodland Pottery, 103 Wupatki National Monument, 184

Y Yuma Points, 22 Yuman Culture, 167

Z Zia, 185 Zuni Area, 101, 110, 113, 144, 185

Transcriber’s Notes

—Silently corrected a few typos.

—Added headings and Table of Contents entries to bring them into correspondence.

—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.

—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.