PART FOUR
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES IN DISCIPLINE
Before entering into the discussion of the fundamental principles underlying discipline, it will be well to explode the erroneous notion that too many teachers hold: namely, that general principles of discipline are not broadly applicable. To illustrate, recently a certain magazine made the announcement that a notable educator was writing a course in child training. To this, one of those all-wise pessimists replied that the educator would have to write just as many courses as there were children, assuming that each child is a totally different entity and what can be used in the training of one child cannot possibly be employed in the education of another. Such an assumption is unsound, unfounded and absurd. In the following pages the writer proposes to prove the fallacy of such a notion.
Various Dispositions
Again and again it may be heard that should a school have twenty-five pupils, there would be twenty-five different dispositions to handle and that what might be used in disciplining one child could not be used in disciplining another. No one wishes to gainsay that there are as many different dispositions as there are individuals, but these different dispositions will all undoubtedly respond to the great fundamental laws underlying discipline. To attempt to deny the operation and general effectiveness of fundamental principles in discipline would be an attempt to overthrow a bulwark of accumulated evidence of the past. Principles that are fundamental, not alone in discipline, but in every activity, have operated in unmistakable surety since the dawn of history. To deny this would only tend to weaken one’s faith in principles that when properly applied have always overcome the most stubborn problems in discipline.
Small minds often find it impossible to collect useful knowledge into general statements. They prefer to settle each difficulty by reference to a similar former experience. On the other hand one who profits largely from his experience is able finally to draw broad conclusions which he can use in widely different situations.
This power of generalization makes easy the comparison of experiences of teachers and so skill in disciplinary matters multiplies itself at every opportunity for the exchange of ideas.
A number of careful observations made in the school-room will sustain the assertion that any fundamental principle will certainly become applicable to the mass of individuals. It is a universal law that a fundamental principle of psychological import works toward the same end in every normal individual. Several years ago a principal in a large high school made the following observations. One of his teachers was keenly sensitive to all the little faults of the pupils. Seven of the boys and five of the girls had been reported by her to the principal for various offenses. Each of the twelve pupils portrayed entirely different characteristics. Their offenses too were entirely different as well as their motives. Here was a plain case of twelve different dispositions, which no one would attempt to ignore, but quite naturally, the teacher did not use twelve different methods of procedure; she had a feeling of distrust toward all of these pupils. She did not openly show it, but before the school closed there was an open rupture between those pupils and the teacher—they hated her—why? They could hardly tell. It was due to her attitude of distrust. This evil was not openly at work (except to a keen observer) but silently, it operated upon twelve different dispositions in the same way—all to one end.
In the same school and at the same time, labored another teacher who reported the same boys and girls, but her reports were followed up by a deep love toward and helpful trust in those boys and girls. She did not tell them that she trusted and loved them. The principle accomplished its mission silently—as is always the case. These boys and girls, without knowing why, came to love, respect and obey this teacher. She did not use different methods on the different dispositions, but in silence a fundamental principle at work, won for her the admiration of all her pupils. She was a successful disciplinarian. She skillfully applied fundamental principles, and it is needless to add that no serious outbreaks against discipline ever occurred under her management. It is all too true that the failure to understand fundamental principles in discipline is the certain cause of perplexing problems that will suggest “so-called” different methods for different dispositions.
Broad underlying principles in discipline are safe and the teacher who would seek skill in school management will ground himself in these broad underlying principles—principles that have been effective through countless decades of successful school management. It is an axiom that the teacher who fails to use the fundamental principles of confidence will have many examples of distrust. The teacher who persists in fault finding will always have sufficient material upon which to exercise his fault finding impulse. The teacher who is constantly expecting trouble will soon be rewarded; while on the other hand, the teacher who has an abiding faith in his pupils and himself does not expect real antagonism—true to the universal law, never meets an insoluble problem in school-room discipline. The teacher who displays a deep interest in his work and an interest in the work and welfare of his pupils, will have an industrious school; he will not need to lecture to his pupils about the necessity of diligence; they will show their zeal by doing the work assigned. It is “catching” from the teacher who has an interest and works upon the principle that it is necessary for a teacher, _first_, to enjoy doing school work well before the pupils can be expected to do likewise. No one denies that trust will beget trust, confidence will beget confidence, good-will will beget good-will and affection will beget affection. The opposite is likewise true, hate will beget hate, distrust will beget distrust, suspicion will beget suspicion, and fault finding will beget dissatisfaction. From the foregoing, it may be assumed that the most skeptical must be convinced concerning the broad and effective application of general principles. In this connection, it is well to remember, that fundamental principles can not apply themselves, the teacher is the agent that must apply the principles and adjust the laws to every given case.
The Principle of Suggestion
The principle of suggestion will be given the first consideration, not because it is more important than any of the fundamental principle in discipline, but because it is so obviously and vitally correlated with all others. At the very outset it is a truth that cannot be overlooked that the teacher’s very life is a silent suggestive stimulus. In fact all the other principles would lose their effectiveness to a great extent were not the principle of suggestion interwoven in their operations. For example, the teacher has occasion to use the principle of approval. In it the principle of suggestion is involved. The teacher approves of a pupil’s behavior, immediately there is suggested to the pupil the idea of future good behavior for the sake of approval, and furthermore because it means better class-standing. The operation of the principle can even effect other than direct results. A pupil or a number of pupils, who were indifferent regarding this special point of good behavior, indeed, who may have been misbehaving at the time the other pupil was conducting himself so as to elicit approval from his teacher, will be affected by the approval. The principle of suggestion leads them to infer that they too can gain approbation for good behavior. Thus, the principle operates in channels where the teacher may not have directly applied the principle.
The principle of suggestion can be defined or explained as the process by which associated ideas follow one another into consciousness. Sometimes it is explained simply as the association of ideas. It can be termed an intrusion into the mind of an idea; met with more or less opposition by the person; accepted uncritically at last; and realized unreflectively, almost automatically. Suggestion is always a stimulus to action. The proposed action may be external or internal, a movement or an attitude. A suggestion can never refer to a mere idea. If a mere notion is aroused in the mind it is not suggestion; it becomes such if an impulse to act is aroused. This impulse may be suppressed or it may ripen into action. One idea in the mind or consciousness recalls another and so on, a chain of ideas may pass through consciousness, one suggesting the other. Quite often the last idea is very unlike the first in content, and yet if the suggestion is strong action results. “A supply of ideas of the various movements that are possible, left in the memory by experiences of their involuntary performance, is thus the first prerequisite of the voluntary life.”[13]
Henry R. Pattengill, the great Michigan educator and editor, recalls that when a small boy in his log-cabin forest home, his father brought an ax into the house one cold winter morning. As the father laid the ax on the floor beside the fireplace, he said to the children, “Don’t touch that ax or your fingers will stick fast.” Then he left the room. He had unconsciously applied the principle of suggestion. No sooner was the door closed than Henry revolved this question in his mind, “Why will my fingers stick to the ax?” This suggested that he try for himself and see. The trial was made and the results were as the father had intimated, but the boy did not learn the true reason until years afterward.
Another illustration is in point. One of the best rural schools in a Western State had employed a new teacher. He was one of that class of teachers who believe that rules were necessary to cover every known misdemeanor that might happen during the school-year. After opening his school on the first day, he read his list of rules. The pupils had always been well-behaved and well-governed, but not unlike other children were buoyant with abundant life. Among his many rules was one that forbade any pupil to climb upon the woodhouse roof. The punishment for disobeying the rule was a whipping. He skillfully, but in the wrong place, applied the principle of suggestion. Many of the pupils had attended the school for six years and had never thought of climbing upon the woodhouse roof. The new teacher had given the suggestion. Great was his surprise when he walked into the back yard at recess and found every boy and several of the bolder girls on the woodshed roof. They had acted in accordance with the principle of suggestion and it was “up to him” to make good. His predestined punishment was next in order to meet this result of a never-failing operation of a fundamental principle. The most lamentable part of the affair was that the whipping was an impossibility with so large a number of pupils. The teacher was compelled to break one of his rules, which true to a fundamental principle was a suggestion to his pupils that he would break the others as well. It is needless to say that his discipline was of the poorest kind. He failed.
Footnote 13:
Tracy, Psychology of Childhood, p. 95. Heath.
Rules
How many young teachers feel that it is very necessary to have a code of rules! They make themselves believe that it will display authority to begin their first school by reading a list of rules. No worse mistake could be made. By reading a list of rules they are showing a distrust in the boys and girls and thereby laying a foundation for future trouble. It is better to say nothing about order on the first day of school than to parade authority by setting forth rules. Authority and firmness can be far better indicated by beginning earnest work at once on the first day without any reference to rules. “Authority may compel because of its might, and often it must compel because of its responsibility; but the type of order that is most effective is that in which the fact of coercion is least in evidence. In the city and state, as in the school, the condition that is sought is a “fashion” of obeying the law and respecting the rights of others; and while the forces that can coerce must be made plainly evident to those who can be appealed to in no other way, the wise executive keeps them from constantly and irritatingly impinging upon public attention.”[14]
Do not emphasize the idea of authority in the pupils’ minds and your authority will not be forever put to the test. It is a wrong use of the principle of suggestion to exercise authority in a way that is still far too common among teachers. The average boy with good red blood in his veins tends to take the attitude of authority on the part of a teacher as a kind of challenge. The teacher who is constantly flaunting his authority will most assuredly have occasion to use it. The less authority shown the less need for it, is a safe rule to follow. It is bad policy to make rules for the government of a school, and then attach punishments of various kinds and degrees for the infringement of the rules. In governing a school, it is time enough to deal with a misdemeanor after it is committed. Often a certain rule against a certain misdemeanor encourages that act, thus operating in accordance with the principle of suggestion. To apply unvarying rules to varying conditions is a prolific source of error and confusion. No rule can be made to fit a case before it arises.
Suggestion is certainly nothing abnormal and exceptional. It does not lead us away from our ordinary life. Child life is a rich field into which suggestion may enter in a hundred different forms. The life of the family, education, law, business, politics, art, public life and religion are all dependent upon suggestion. Everywhere, at all times individuals are stimulated to actions by outside suggestion, that they would not perform, if they were to act upon their own impulses or reasons. Experience shows that different individuals have different degrees of suggestive power. Attendant circumstances have a great influence upon the power of suggestion. Individual characteristics differ widely as to the effect of suggestion.
In no field of activity is the principle of suggestion so powerful and useful as in the teachers profession. It will be well to deviate from the subject of suggestion to note that imitation plays a vital part in suggestion in the school-room. It must be remembered that imitation follows suggestion; it is a resultant of suggestion. The teacher who embodies every qualification that makes a true teacher will suggest the traits of his character to his pupils. They will as a natural sequence imitate them. Every trait of a noble character is important and deserves to be emulated by the child; the characteristics that make successful men and women in every activity of life are worthy of imitation. The greatest trait of character is morality, and it is the most vital of the teacher’s requisites. To the average pupil this trait in the teacher’s character will appeal. If the pupil’s moral life is near perfection, the teacher’s life will only aid in helping the pupil to maintain his standard. This may be termed an unconscious co-operation of the teacher with his pupil. Building a strong character is not an easy matter for the average pupil. He sees in his teacher those requisites which he wishes to incorporate in his own life; he must overcome his own weakness; when he does so, he is allowing the teacher’s worthy characteristics to suggest to his the possibility of incarnating them into his own life. This is neither co-operation or imitation merely, but suggestion. It is also true of the law of suggestion that if the teacher exhibits unworthy traits of character, these too will act as suggestions to the pupils. It need not be argued further that the teacher’s life is a powerful incentive to imitation through suggestion.
Suggestion as an agency for effective volition does not stop with those elements that build character. It reaches into the child’s life at every opening. His habits of work, of study, of play, and every physical, mental and spiritual process are largely influenced by the principle of suggestion. In fact, his first notions always come from some suggestion. His first ideas of play, of work, and of study come as ideas from some one else or from some outside source. The notion in itself, at first, is abstract, but becomes concrete and a part of the child when he allows the suggestion of the notion to cause him to act so as to make the notion a reality and a part of his life.
One of the most powerful agencies for suggestion is the school community itself. The principal of a school had the pleasure of transferring his pupils to a new building, erected at a cost of more than sixty thousand dollars. He resolutely set his mind to the task of preserving the property from defacement.
In the old building a succession of teachers and pupils had allowed to grow up the custom of grossly injuring both the structure proper and the equipment as well. Both in public and in private he judiciously drew the picture of the contrast between the appearances of the two buildings. At the proper moment on each occasion he asked the individual or the school as a whole, as the case might be, if the preservation of the new building in its perfect condition was desirable: “Do you want to keep the new school house fresh and in perfect order as long as possible?”
The pupils in a large majority, of course, declared that that was their desire. The public sentiment soon became so strong that it entirely suppressed the few who otherwise would have continued the policy of defacing school property. There arose a community will among the pupils that made itself felt and held in easy control the unruly members of the school.
The teacher who fails to make use of this agency for suggesting courses of action to his pupils is neglecting a powerful force in the management of his school. Suggestions are rapidly transferred from pupil to pupil; a proper choice of the occasion is necessary; a careful balancing of diverse elements in the school group must be achieved; a variety of appeals to meet differences in dispositions is required; a knowledge of these guiding facts can not but make the plan of community suggestion a feasible and in fact a necessary instrument in school management.
“The best disciplined school that the writer has ever seen was under the charge of a principal who had worked for six years to make the collective will of the pupil-body give its sanctions to good order, courteous behavior, and aggressive effort. Interest in school work and co-operation with the teachers had become distinct fashions. So powerful was the force thus generated and directed that the superintendent not infrequently transferred to this school pupils who had got beyond control in other schools of the city.”[15]
Since suggestion is by nature a stimulus to action it may be well to urge that all attempts to use suggestion as a disciplinary measure should be moulded by some specific plan of action for the pupil.
If the teacher attempts to direct merely the attitudes or feelings of the pupil he will often fail in the use of suggestion. Every person whether child or adult has far more interest in activity than in inaction. Even rest is always considered a preparation for further activity.
Activity may be of two kinds: work and play. Suggestion may be used in both. Madame Montessori says: “The first dawning of real discipline comes through work.”[16] The fascination of a piece of work even in the kindergarten will fix attention, inspire persistence and in countless ways actually direct the impulses of the child. Discipline through work is the most ready and appropriate agency for the moral training of all, both young and old.
The teacher who understands the disciplinary resources of the school tasks is a competent teacher and disciplinarian. The more completely the discipline of the school is fused with the established school program of activity the better will be the results reached.
Play is a part of the recognized outline of school functions. It is second only to work as an educative instrument. All that may be said of the wise use of suggestion in work may be repeated with slight modifications in respect to play. The teacher must give as much wise thought to the suggestive features of play as to any other element in school life.
Footnote 14:
Bagley, op. cit., p. 132.
Footnote 15:
Bagley, op. cit. p. 5.
Footnote 16:
The Montessori Method, p. 350. Stokes.
The Principle of Leading Suggestion
Some years ago a young country teacher called upon one of his city friends late one winter afternoon. Just as the teacher was leaving his friend’s home, the conversation turned to a topic that was very interesting to both, but the teacher had three miles to walk into the country and knew that he could not tarry to finish the conversation. However, he asked his friend to walk with him from the house to the first telephone post so that they might carry on their conversation. The friend knew that supper would be ready in a few minutes but the suggestion to walk so small a distance from his home in order to carry on an interesting conversation was appealing and he yielded to the teacher’s wish. Upon reaching the telephone post the conversation had grown more interesting instead of reaching an end, so the teacher suggested that his friend walk two blocks further with him to a certain school building. The friend acted upon the suggestion, but upon reaching the school building the conversation had reached a greater point of interest and was in no way near completion. Both were deeply interested. The teacher made the suggestion that his friend walk to a certain bridge with him. Again the friend acted upon the suggestion. So, on they journeyed until the friend discovered that he had walked half of the way from his home to the teacher’s home, besides forgetting all about his supper. No one will doubt that had the teacher asked his friend to walk half way to his home with him just as they left the house, he would not have succeeded in inducing him to do so, even by the use of most persistent persuasion. But he succeeded in taking his friend with him by suggesting a little part of the journey at a time. He had used a principle that for the want of a better name will be called the Principle of Leading Suggestion.
However, it is not a matter of the name of the principle, but the principle itself and its application that interests the teacher. How many teachers have failed to lead pupils to do what they have asked them to do, all because the imposed task appeared to be too hard. This same task could have been readily accomplished had the teacher divided it into inviting portions and requested the pupil to do just one part at a time. In this case the whole task should not be discussed at first. At no time in the journey described above did the friend think but that the small distance suggested would be the last part of the journey and at the end of it he would turn homeward.
The teacher discovers among his pupils a boy who dislikes to read. The teacher knows the boy’s likes and dislikes and is sure that certain books would interest him, but to ask the boy to read an entire book would only mean to further discourage him as to the reading habit. Hence, the teacher asks the boy to read the first chapter on a certain day for a specific purpose which he frankly makes known to the boy. A few days may elapse before the teacher asks the boy to read the second chapter with some other aim in view, perhaps. Thus the teacher labors until the boy has read the book. In most cases the boy will announce that he read on ahead of the teacher’s assignment and will ask for another book “just like this one.” He has broken the ice and by a wise choice of books on the part of the teacher, he may become an enthusiastic reader.
The teacher with a keen insight will see no limit to the number of results that may be obtained by the use of leading suggestion. In the primary grades it can be made a very effective tool for advancing the child’s interests. The stubborn and willful child will respond readily to this principle and may thus be cured of his habit of obstinacy. This principle can be applied to advance the interests of children as well as to cure traits of disposition that are not desirable. The teacher who wishes to accomplish results along these lines will carefully study the dispositions of pupils; and further, watch for every advantage whereby he may tactfully apply the principle of leading suggestion for the furtherance of effective work.
Imitation
Reference has been made to imitation as being closely connected with suggestion. Its further discussion is in place here. Aristotle said, “Man is the most imitative of animals, and makes his first steps in learning by the aid of imitation.” The thought has a broader application. The first steps in all of the child’s activities are made because of imitation. The first phase in the gaining of power and facility in action is imitation of the action of another. It is highly important for the teacher to remember, in attempting to direct boys and girls, that all are imitators of those whom they admire. Men have been described as the composite of all those who have directly or indirectly made some impress upon their lives. Too great care cannot be exercised as to the kind of associations and friendships pupils make, as each contact will leave its effect upon them for good or for evil. The teacher is the most important associate and friend of many, many pupils; consequently, it is of the utmost importance that his life conform to the best standards of character. Imitation is an inborn disposition which is not learned but precedes learning. In fact, it is a means employed in learning. By using both imitation and suggestion properly, the teacher will have a device that will go a great way toward his success in discipline.
In another volume entitled “Applied Methods,” a book which gives the practical applications of our fundamental principles—the principle of suggestion will be applied to various school-room difficulties. The application will be made in such a manner that the teacher can easily understand its use to best advantage in his own problems of discipline. All other fundamental principles discussed will be shown in their practical applications. This will leave no doubt in the teacher’s mind as to the use of fundamental principles in school-room problems.
The Principle of Approval
The next principle under consideration is the principle of approval. The desire for approval appears early in childhood, and continues through life. It acts both as a restraint and as an impulse, and is often an active principle in human conduct. No true child is insensible to the good opinions of his classmates or to the commendation of his teacher. It has been wisely said, “A young man is not far from ruin when he can say with honesty, ‘I don’t care what others think about me.’” He has lost a needed check against evil and a beneficent impulse toward right action.
Just how far the application of the principle of approval may justly extend in school-room discipline, does not occur to the average teacher. It is very safe to assume that the principle of approval rightly used would be an effective preventative of three-fourths of the perplexities that harass the teacher in the school-room. The usual process of dealing with a fault, is to aggravate it by constant reference to it. This is wrong. But the teacher replies, “How can a fault be removed except the child be constantly reminded of its existence, and also reminded of the corrective?” The teacher, too, may add that reminding the pupil of his fault is not disapproval, unless it be done in a fault finding manner. That may all be very true. But the principle of approval can affect the cure. The following incident well illustrates the point.
Some years ago there lived in one of the coast towns of Maine, a big-hearted seaman, who was considerably worried about his only son’s stoop shoulders. In the kindliest manner possible, he had reminded his son almost daily, that he should throw back his shoulders. The son understood his father’s kindness and interest in the matter and at no time felt that his father was finding fault with him. However, the boy continued to be stoop shouldered. An uncle happened into the house one day for a visit of several weeks. The uncle was soon annoyed by the constancy and utter uselessness of the father’s corrective for his son’s stoop shoulders. The uncle called the father aside and asked him if he would not allow him to make an attempt at correcting the boy’s stoop shoulders. The father gladly agreed and also consented to have nothing whatever to do with the affair. He felt that he had done all he could and was unable to guess what method the uncle would pursue. The uncle very shrewdly saw a condition of the lad that he might approve and thereby he would be able to correct the stoop shoulders. The lad knew nothing of his uncle’s plan and for that reason responded the more readily, all unconscious of the process at work. On the following morning the father was amused to see the uncle give his son a jovial slap on the chest, and hear him remark, “Say, Tom, that is some chest.” No more was observed by the father for that day. But the day following, the uncle again slapped the boy on the chest, remarking, “I believe you will have a broader and fuller chest than I have;” at the same time displaying his chest well filled out. Casual remarks of this kind were dropped at opportune times. Tom’s chest expanded until the stoop shoulders disappeared. The cure was effective. The boy did not realize that a double effect would follow his breathing properly. Approval won where disapproval failed.
Many a teacher has ruined the best of his pupils by constantly finding fault with, or disapproving of their small faults and inabilities; while on the other hand many a prudent teacher has made a good pupil out of one who promised to be but a dullard by commending those small things which he could do, and entirely overlooking the things that he was unable to do. If attention was called to what he could not do well, it was only to offer some friendly assistance. It is a fact that must not be forgotten that any activity is made easier by its constant repetition. Thus, if the small things that the pupil can do are approved he naturally will work the harder and thereby gain strength, until he has become a master of himself accomplishing the most difficult tasks.
This principle is broadly applicable to all school-work. There is no child that cannot do something in every phase of school-work. This “something” the teacher should approve. It will without fail stimulate the child to the fullest use of his ability. The teacher should not ignore that which the child fails to accomplish; the task is often too difficult. Only such work should be assigned as can be done, and the necessary assistance should be given; by no means should disapproval be meted out. This plan followed conscientiously will improve the most backward child. The question may be asked, “What about the pupil who is indifferent or neglects to complete his work?” It is well to approve that which he _does_. If the teacher is sure the pupil is indifferent or negligent, the child should be told the truth about his work and have his attention called to his ability to do better work. To approve wisely and effectively does not mean to deceive.
In the matter of school-room discipline, the principle of approval is even more valuable than in school-room instruction. Everyone believes that no boy or girl is so depraved that some good traits can not be found. At some time they will manifest their kindlier natures and do those things which should elicit approval. Whenever such pupils do anything worth while it gives the teacher opportunity to use the word or look of approval. This will encourage them to repeat whatever elicits approval. It will increase the frequency of such acts and create a desire to do other things that are worth while. It is a time-honored saying that if all one’s time is taken up in doing good deeds, there will be no time left for evil deeds. This is no vague notion as to the child’s life. Whatever increases the time spent in doing things worth while will decrease the time left for worthlessness and idleness.
But what shall be done with those actions of the pupils that are annoying? They cannot be approved. Should they be disapproved? Yes. But with caution. Should the teacher find fault with the pupil on account of his misdemeanors? No, decidedly no. It is the province of the teacher to assist the children under his tuition. Their faults and misdemeanors should not be tools in the teacher’s hands to be used against them. Such a procedure would be a crime. Then how shall their faults and misdemeanors be treated?
The teacher who will succeed, will call the pupil who has annoyed him aside and in a business-like manner discuss the misdemeanor with the pupil. The teacher must not accuse the pupil but ask him for information; if the teacher has met his pupil in a kindly way, he will get the desired information; the teacher should admit anything in which he may have been at fault and then ask the pupil to admit his own fault. At this point the teacher should never express his opinion about the misdemeanor, before he has asked the pupil to give his own opinion about the action in controversy. With few exceptions the pupil will express himself correctly about the misdemeanor. The shrewd teacher will then agree with his pupil, and in an offhand way add any variance of opinion or give suggestions. If this method is followed by a teacher in a kindly but firm mood, the difficulty will have been dealt with in the correct manner. The fault will doubtless not be repeated by the pupil. And without fail the teacher will have another firm and true friend in this child.
While much importance is attached to the teacher’s correct use of the principle of approval, still more is demanded of him. The value of approval clearly depends upon its source—on the character of him who approves. The approval of the wicked or unscrupulous teacher is a snare. The approval of the wise and good teacher can never be valued too highly. A teacher must watch lest his pupils put approval before honor and duty. The motive which the teacher must seek to cultivate, is not a craving for unmerited praise and flattery, but a desire to merit approval; and, this involves no surrender of conscience or honor. This is a worthy motive, but it must be remembered that it can easily be submerged under pride and vanity.
The degree of satisfaction to the child resulting from approval depends upon his esteem for those who bestow it. The satisfaction that comes from approval of one’s equals, as classmates, is less than that which comes from one’s superiors, as parents or teachers. What has been said is sufficient to show that the teacher needs to be very careful in the use of approval as a disciplinary device. The one thing to be avoided is false praise or flattery. No weakness in the pupil is more easily aroused, or with more difficulty suppressed than vanity. The desire for praise, and especially public praise, grows on its own gratification; the more the child gets the more he wants. It is a good rule to speak ten words of commendation to one of censure; but the commendation should be sincere and honest and the censure kind and just. Finally, it may be concluded that whatever of good may come from the use of the principle of approval in discipline, depends in a large measure upon the teacher.
Encouragement
Broadly speaking, encouragement is involved in the principle of approval. Some years ago a young man (Mr. X) of marked ability but of such a temperament that he was easily discouraged, was prevented from teaching school by some crafty scheme of the county superintendent and others who were opposed to the young man. Mr. X was thoroughly prepared to teach and far worthier in character than the county superintendent and his accomplices. A friend of the applicant, chancing to be with him one evening in August just at sunset, took occasion in view of the beautiful sunset to tell the young man how much beauty there is in life. He explained that adversities, such as he had just experienced are only stepping stones to nobler efforts. He told him not to heed the discouragement, but go right on in his chosen work and success would crown his efforts; and that after all, life was so full of beauty that it would overshadow all difficulties. The young man and his friend parted. The friend had forgotten Mr. X and did not know of his whereabouts until one day a letter came to him from the young fellow. The following extract from the letter will explain how encouraging was the talk of a few years before. “I now have a good position in this city (the city was Akron, Ohio) and can also teach if I care to. I have often been discouraged, but remembered your talk and resolved upon this sentiment for myself: ‘There are two ways in life and if young men and women would consider these ways soberly and earnestly before moving onward they would choose the one which truth and reason tell them will lead to honor, success and happiness.’ You and I know the other way too well to need description. Life is not mean; it is grand. If it is mean to anyone he makes it so himself. God made it glorious. How much life means to every individual, words cannot explain. I have often been discouraged but I looked upon the bright side and went on.” There could be no more eloquent appeal for encouragement as a device in the hands of the serious teacher. Many are the times and opportunities when a teacher can speak an encouraging word and thereby send a life into a fuller realization of its worth.
Sometimes the best pupil in the school meets with adversities (and they will come to every individual ofttimes in life); they would overwhelm him were it not for an encouraging word from a thoughtful teacher. Every teacher should keenly realize that it is a part of his work, his actual _duty_ to lend encouragement to his pupils. If the lessons are hard, the teacher must encourage; if the pupil has fallen into one or more of the petty temptations that beset children on every side, the teacher must forgive and forget, and point out corrective measures, thereby reassuring him and if the pupil has failed the teacher must comfort him. It was Lowell who said, “Not failure, but low aim, is crime.” Every teacher can be a source of great good if he will wisely help and encourage where encouragement is needed. Such a teacher’s work will live long after he is gone, and he will be kindly remembered by many who are treading life’s pathways.
A few years ago a young man sought to enter Columbia University for his last year of college work, and discovered that he was quite deficient in language requirements. Just as he was about to leave the college and give up the fond hope of completing his education, he was accosted by a fraternity man, who was a stranger, but who soon made himself a friend and so encouraged and inspired the young student that he took double work and succeeded in finishing his college education. That young student is now a man occupying a useful and worthy place of trust in a large institution. The teacher who can encourage a pupil as the fraternity man reassured the young student, will have no trouble in discipline with that pupil. The pupil who has been saved from despair always has a warmth of feeling for the one who thus inspired him.
The Principle of Initiative in Co-operation
Speaking of the child, Arthur Holmes[17] says, “He is organic, living, developing. He cannot be kneaded like dough, nor hammered like iron, nor carved like marble, but he can be guided like a vine upon a trelis.”
This work of directing the life of a child is specially represented by some act which brings satisfaction to the pupil and so begins an interplay of personal forces that leads the pupil to have confidence in the teacher.
To mark off this kind of action we choose to name the principle involved in it, the Principle of Initiative in Co-operation.
Experience shows that no person can have the desired educative influence over a child unless it be by doing deeds that draw forth the child’s appreciation. The turn of affairs in the school depends on the teacher. He must choose and choose wisely if his control over the pupils is adequate. He must take the initiative in establishing good relations and in maintaining them.
In the discussion following, the term co-operation is used, but it is to be understood that the teacher thoughtfully takes the first step in all acts of co-operation, anticipating, of course, the pupils’ reactions to all of his acts of service.
There is no greater principle in discipline than that of co-operation. No other one is more potent among the teacher’s devices. But it is a fact, much to be regretted, that no principle is used less in the school-room. The fact is that a majority of teachers do not realize what disciplinary co-operation means. Its skillfull use as an instrument of government is unknown to them.
The inquiring teacher asks for an explanation of the principle of co-operation. It means a gratifying or yielding to a child’s wishes or desires. Or, it is a forbearance from restraint or control. It may be gratitude for a favor granted; no doubt some teachers need to “Learn the luxury of doing good.”
Leniency and tolerance are forms of co-operation. The term certainly denotes companionship in performing every school duty.
Co-operation requires mutual understanding and sympathy. Clearly demonstrated by Pestalozzi, this fundamental method of child management has found recent advocates in the founders of the Gary and Fairhope systems of instruction.
The question comes up at once, “Will not deviation from a uniform firmness which is implied in co-operation weaken discipline?” Upon close examination the opposite will be found to be true. It has been explained that the real end of discipline is self-control on the part of the child and further that self-control is the basal element in character.
Co-operation demands that we understand the nature of the child and enjoy giving him freedom, at the same time working with him, not over him.
The home or the school which manages children by the use of authority chiefly is not working toward the true object of discipline, but away from it. The child who is constantly governed, who has all his decisions formed by some one else, has all his motives influenced by a parent or teacher, in fact, his every activity controlled by another mind, will be weak in self-mastery. How can he learn to control himself if he is always under the will of another? Similar questions that will help the reader to understand might be asked. For example: how can a boy learn to swim if he is not allowed in the water? How can a girl learn to sew if she is not given sewing materials? Then is it not just as logical to ask: how can a child learn to control himself if he is not given the opportunity to learn? It is to be feared that too many teachers have had the wrong idea of discipline; namely, that it means to have a child constantly under restraint. That is erroneous. Neither discipline nor authority requires that. True discipline is that which directs the child to become a self-governing individual, so that when he leaves the school, he can go into the world and lead an efficient life. Happy is such a child, but unfortunate is the child who has been so much subjected to another that when he must face the realities of life he still needs a guiding hand.
The following incident is very much to the point. It is the story of two mothers. Each had a son who had reached his majority and was ready to step onto the threshold of the world. Said the one mother to the other, “I am so fearful for my boy when he gets into the world. I have controlled him so carefully, that when he can not have my oversight, I am sure he will go into wrong paths.” The other mother replied, “I am not at all concerned about my boy. I have kept close to the life of my son, helping him yet training him for independent action. I am confident that with his ability to control himself he need have no fears that the conflicts of life will overwhelm him. I am assured that he will succeed.” The latter mother had a true conception of discipline. The notion of discipline that the former mother had, is too prevalent among teachers. It is well worth repeating, that true discipline is the kind which trains the child to be self-governing.
Remember that any deviation from the routine of school discipline, any pleasure that may be granted, any offense that may be forgiven, any aid in performing a task that may be difficult, in short any service that shows your devotion to the child’s welfare may be considered co-operation.
The principle of co-operation when properly applied will very materially strengthen discipline. The boy or girl whose every activity is controlled is being robbed of the greatest gift that the school can give—self-control. “All seeming _suppression_ of impulses will be found to be based upon _expression_ of _other_ impulses, not upon sheer brute repression.”[18] Boys and girls must be compelled to make decisions for themselves. But some one will say, “In making their own decisions they may blunder and decide in the wrong way.” No permanent harm need result. Experience is the wisest of teachers. Children can not be taught in the school of every-day life until they enter into its experiences; and fortunate are they, when they enter, if they have been taught carefully the lessons of self-control by some prudent parent or teacher. It will make them stronger if they must help themselves over their own difficulties. This does not mean that the teacher must not have taught the principles of self-control. The real test of good teaching will come when the boys and girls are compelled to hold their own in the world.
Those who have read Myrtle Reed’s “The Master’s Violin,” will recall how Mrs. Irving never allowed her son, Lynn, to solve any of his own difficulties. Instead of co-operating with him she dominated him. She was his mind and bore his trials as well as all his joys and sorrows. He was often eager to dive into the world with all its temptations and perplexities, but she could not permit him to get away from her authority. She was not an unkind mother, but she was not a wise mother. When he desired to mingle with the street lads she would not indulge him lest he become contaminated. She restrained him from everything which to her seemed to forecast any danger. She could not tolerate that he should have boyhood fancies and passions. Instead of guiding him wisely through his boyhood problems, she laid the hand of restraint upon him. Her authority was firm though not unkind. The day finally came when she could no longer solve or mitigate her son’s problems. Life brought to him what it may bring to all, dark troubles, hidden within the soul. He was untutored and unprepared to meet his trials; his mother could not meet them for him; she had only greatly weakened her boy, she had not prepared him by sensible discipline to meet his troubles. Had she allowed him to experience some of the problems that must confront every child, he would have been prepared to meet his later trials. He could not escape, so in the bitterest agony he was compelled to fight his own battles at a grievous loss.
A certain fifth grade teacher—in the fifth grade are often found some of the most troublesome boys—discovered that by gaining their friendship she could control and discipline her room perfectly. Frequently, all the pupils were allowed to spend an hour or two in some nearby forest, if in the country, or a park if in the city, because they had behaved well. Sometimes school was suspended for a short time and every pupil was allowed to tell a story. This same teacher often checked an unruly boy who seemed on the verge of some impending mischief, by asking him a question about that which was of the most interest to him. This might be about his pets, his gun, the striking novelties in some recent lesson, or even about some imaginary trip.
It is not unusual that healthy pupils even though well reared should be mischievous; this is due to surplus energy. The teacher, who could make himself believe that such children are his enemies, is in the wrong profession. It is, indeed, a pleasure to work with pupils exuberant with energy. This energy directed into the proper channels will insure growth of character in boys and girls. A certain superintendent in a small school in Western Ohio found himself in a high school were the pupils never tired of playing tricks. They cut down the bell rope, turned mice loose in school, imitated a cat in another room and did all kinds of tricks for fun. The superintendent was new in the school, but it did not take him long to learn that it was all due to a surplus of energy in healthful boys and girls. His solution was to use this energy. To this end he set about at once securing funds to build a gymnasium. The Board of Education could not finance the undertaking, so he enlisted the corps of teachers and together they secured funds by private subscription to build the gymnasium. After the gymnasium was finished, the superintendent taught the classes in calisthenics and physical culture. More than once, without discussing it with the boys and girls, he directed the entire high school twice a day, for fifteen to thirty minutes longer than the usual recess period; the time was used for physical education: work in folk dances, games and gymnastics. When the pupils returned to the school-room, their surplus energy was worked off, their blood was filled with oxygen and they were very studious. He even arranged that those who were excellent in deportment might attend a night class, where interesting games were played. He had boys’ basketball teams, girls’ basketball teams, volley ball clubs, roller skating clubs, track work, Saturday afternoon clubs, and other activities which delighted the pupils. Because of this mischievous pranks disappeared entirely and the efficiency of the pupils was increased nearly fifty per cent. The high school enrolled seventy pupils on the first day. During the year only three dropped out, making the per cent of attendance ninety-five, which is a very good record.
Initiative in co-operation, as it is here discussed, must not be confused with the common practice of parents who buy their children’s good behavior. It is all too common and one of the worst faults of parents, to tell their children that they will give them a penny, or some candy or other articles pleasing to the children if they will behave while company is in the home. This may be called a form of compact, but it is simply a wrong use of co-operation. Many teachers resort to just such a system of purchasing good behavior or good lessons. This is wrong. The proper use of reciprocity has a worthier motive in it. The teacher who rules by prudent companionship is kindhearted and sympathetic, has a broad outlook on child life, and a spirit that can forgive and forget, and take back into his love and sympathy the erring pupil.
There are many ways of giving freedom to a pupil which will work to his advancement and advantage. It is true, as it is in all school work, that caution is necessary, that the true end sought by the device should not be defeated. Every teacher knows how kindly a pupil will feel toward him, if he is allowed to share in some of the duties to which great honor is attached. This privilege can be given for good lessons, good behavior, punctuality or any kind of effort in school work. Some pupils like to draw, others to do favors for the teacher, even some will feel that the teacher appreciates them, if they can work problems on the black-board, go to the manual training or domestic science room. It is indeed a splendid and effective indulgence to allow any pupil, whether he is the best or the most indifferent one, to run an errand for the teacher. To let a boy, who feels that everybody distrusts him, run down town, or if it is in the country, to town after dismissals and make a trivial purchase for the teacher, will make him gain, first, confidence in himself, and then in his teacher, because of the fact that his teacher has confidence in him. Should a pupil abuse the privileges extended to him as indulgences, then the teacher, without any explanation can withhold the privileges for a few days. He will soon find his pupil asking for, or that which is better, deserving the privilege. It can be granted, and it is safe to assume that the pupil will take care not to forfeit his privileges again.
In the primary grades, the little ones like the sand-pile, the colored blocks, the privilege of leading the procession, of drawing on the black-board with colored crayons, of putting the teacher’s desk in order, of watering the flowers in the school-room windows, of running errands, and a score of similar activities. They will work hard for hours, or act with great self-restraint, in order to enjoy one of the above accessories of the regular school work. They feel that they are co-operating with the teacher when they work for her. In the grammar grades pupils often beg the privilege of holding a spelling-match. It may often be well to indulge them. They will appreciate it and have a deeper respect for the teacher.
It is too important a matter of school-room discipline, and means far too much in the future of many a boy’s or girl’s life, to overlook the fact that if pupils are met with authority only they will challenge that authority. No teacher will deny that if he allows his pupils many pleasurable privileges, they will be obedient to his wishes because he is obedient to their wishes. One does not have to go far to find a teacher who has kept many a boy from smoking, chewing tobacco, gambling or resorting to evil practices, all because that teacher gave the boy his friendship, and filled his life with innocent pleasure. The boy’s own words—and they are often heard—bear testimony to the fact. Who has not heard a boy say, “That teacher wanted us to have a good time, I liked him because he liked the boys, I minded him because he knew what was good for us.” What teacher could not feel proud of such an encomium? It is a reward far more lasting than any stipend for the teacher’s work.
It is not the purpose of this Course to enter into the discussion of why pupils indulge in many evil practices, but the teacher should know that often privileges that lead to no harm are denied pupils; this causes them to seek to break away from restraint. As a rule pupils do not admire or like a teacher who denies them the privileges they seek. Because of this dislike they are prone to antagonize the teacher as much as possible, thus making discipline a more difficult problem for him. Besides, they will do many things unknown to the teacher that will lead to evil. Every one can recall a school where every pupil seemed bent on getting into mischief, where the girls were out late at night, the boys frequented pool-rooms and often saloons, smoked, attended questionable dances and were vicious generally. On the other hand, schools can be recalled where all the pupils seemed well-behaved. In the former instance the teacher was a cold, formal individual who did not indulge his pupils in those many pleasures that amuse and please and keep them out of mischief. In the latter instance the teacher was a big-hearted, sympathetic individual, who loved the boys and girls. He made room for their youthful sports and even entered into the games himself. Thus he could lead his pupils into nobler lives because he acted as one of their number.
A teacher who wishes to render efficient service in his work and make himself more successful in discipline, will use the principle of co-operation. It would be worth while to spend a week or two observing all the exercises and activities of the school and to keep a memorandum of every phase of the work which could be improved by working more intimately with the pupils. _The teacher who discretely employs the principle of co-operation in discipline will improve his ability to govern fifty per cent._ But the good to the pupils that will result will be gratifying and lasting. For discipline is a failure if the results do not appear in the child’s entire life.
Footnote 17:
Principles of Character Making, p. 1. Lippincott.
Footnote 18:
Angell, op. cit., p. 436.
Consistency
While good results can be obtained by the use of co-operation, yet it can be made effective only by practicing consistency. In the application of the principle of co-operation in discipline, the teacher needs to be consistent. The entire school should be treated as a unit. Particular pupils should not be singled out as recipients of the teacher’s companionship. Such a procedure would defeat the effectiveness of the principle. Many pupils are so amiable that they are more closely associated with the teacher than more diffident and bashful pupils. Such pupils will naturally secure for themselves a goodly share of the privileges given by the teacher—not because they are selfish, but because they are more forward. Thus it will happen that the diffident pupil will get few or no privileges from the teacher. This will work great evil in a school. Soon some one will accuse the teacher of being partial when in reality the teacher is not at fault, since the forward pupil really causes the teacher to seem partial. Teachers must guard against this condition, for often parents misunderstand the situation and likewise accuse the teacher of being partial. When this happens his influence is undermined. A careful teacher will explain to his pupils that the confident pupil gets more from the teacher than the diffident and bashful pupil. It is his duty to insist that the diffident pupil help himself to all privileges. The teacher needs often to aid bashful pupils to get privileges; he should in many instances seek to reassure such pupils. This will lead them to love and cherish him. No teacher has not had pupils who invited him into their homes, desired to walk with him, took him riding, or brought him various little favors. The sociable teacher will accept with good grace all these kindnesses that pupils extend to him. But here it happens that many pupils will not offer their teachers such favors. This would be well if other pupils did not infer that the teacher is partial. He should make it plain that he loves his pupils all alike, though some treat him with more consideration than others.
A common fault with teachers who indulge their pupils is that sometimes they meet with adversity in the form of an irate parent or some incompatible person and because of their ruffled spirits they spend a day in the school-room without showing even friendship to the pupils. The next day their feelings are placated and, somehow, in trying to make up lost time they make unwise use of indulgence. Such a lack of day by day consistency will surely destroy the effectiveness of companionship.
A principal of a well-known high school had accustomed himself to be very friendly and amiable outside of the school, but when he was in the school-room his manner was antagonistic. He seemed unfriendly and not at all courteous to his pupils. This contrast of mannerism or temperament had become so marked that many of the pupils wondered why he did not conduct himself in the school-room as he did on the street. Most of his pupils disliked him but admitted that they could admire him, were he to conduct himself as amiably in the school-room as he did outside. This principal failed to practice a consistency in his life which is so necessary to make and hold friends.
The Principle of Substitution
The law is, “Resist not evil,” for in resisting it it is only aggravated, “but overcome evil with good.” When in darkness, fight it not, but strike a light. When dealing with vice, excite it not, but awaken a positive virtue. If a child has a fault, ignore the fact as much as possible, and develop his better nature. Encourage a virtue and a vice may disappear.
This law is universal in its application. The teaching profession has yet to learn its significance. It can be termed the Principle of Substitution. It means that when one thing is taken out of a life, something else must be put in to fill up the void. When parents and teachers come fully to appreciate this principle and magnify virtue, honor and character in the child—ignoring his evil tendencies—then, and only then, will it be possible to develop every child into noble manhood or womanhood.
Positive virtues make vice impossible. Aggressive goodness leaves no room for evil. Pronounced righteousness once developed in a child, the problem of his government is settled. It is prudent to ignore his tendency not to study when inculcating the habit of study in the pupil. The habits of idleness, inattentiveness, irregularity and others detrimental to a pupil’s welfare can only be eliminated from his life by inciting opposite habits. Great as may the principles of suggestion, approval and co-operation, no greater principle can be discussed than that of substitution. It is a principle widely useful in many diverse activities. Just as it is practical in other fields, so it is feasible and useful in school-room discipline.
The street gamins of New York and other large cities are addicted to many bad habits. They lie, steal, swear, gamble and practice many other vices. They learn these vices by observing them in others and since there are no other activities to engage their attention, they live from day to day in habitual vice until they become criminals. The settlement workers and such institutions as the George Junior Republic, work upon the principle of substitution when they take these boys into their reformatory institutions. In them, the boy is not asked to quit his vices; on the contrary, nothing is said or even suggested about his former evil habits. Instead, his day of twenty-four hours is filled with other employment, so that he has no time left to indulge himself in any of his former evil habits. This practice is kept up until the boy has acquired as habits the activities of the settlement. When he has reached this stage, he can enter the world. It is true that some of the most worthy men of this day are products of boy settlements.
A typical day at a boy’s settlement will include a morning bath and toilet which will send the boy freshened and cleanly to his breakfast which is preceded by a short prayer and Bible reading or some other form of devotional exercise. After breakfast the boys take up their school work, or occupation and continue until noon, when they get their noon-day meal and an hour or two of rest. Care is taken that the rest is rather a change of occupation than idleness. The boys play games or read. In the afternoon some school work and occupational duties are done. Part of the afternoon is spent in some recreation which the boys enjoy. Similarly their time is occupied until supper. Following supper, games, reading and any other forms of recreation that will interest the boys are provided. At a reasonable hour the boys retire. After such an active day, they are usually tired and sleep well until morning when the same routine is followed for another day. When it is feared the boys may tire of their work, enough of a change is made to keep them satisfied. The work is all conducted in such a way that interest is paramount. From the above it can readily be seen that boys in such circumstances have little time for evil deeds.
There is no question but that the same principle can be used in the school-room to great advantage. The following are truthful maxims: “Idleness breeds vice” and “The devil finds some mischief for idle hands to do.” The school-room in which everybody is busy is a quiet school-room. There will not be the proverbial “pin-drop” quietness, but the little noise that can be heard will be a noise of busy pupils. Very often, teachers in planning their daily programs, fail to have the work so arranged as to utilize every minute; then in the interval when the pupils have a lull from their work, they find time to perpetrate mischief.
Another prolific source of mischief is the recess period. The greater majority of teachers believe the pupils will take care of themselves during the recess periods and the noon intermission. It is true that some of the pupils do use the time profitably, but too often, it is a lounging period and the real aim of the intermissions is not carried out, but rather that which is least desirable results. It will be a great step in the direction of advancement when there will be no longer a free-for-all recess or noon intermission, but instead supervised play periods in which every pupil _must_ take part. It is just as reasonable to compel a pupil to take regular recreation as it is to demand that he learn his arithmetic or history lesson. It is more important. He must have a strong healthy body and it can only be made and kept so by regular recreation. The arrangement for getting pupils to the play ground and from it to the school building again, should be carefully planned. Opportunities for mischief should be eliminated. As soon as pupils are seated, work and study should begin. Habits of ease and quietness are easily cultivated in pupils. Whatever of useful employment and recreation takes up the time of the pupils, leaves no time for idleness and mischief.
It is worth mentioning that many children are opposed to supervised play. There are parents too who oppose it. There are several reasons for this opposition. First, the opposition is due to the lack of knowledge of child life on the part of the teacher or those who supervise the play of children. Children very naturally follow a leader and if the teacher is a lover of children and their sports, he will be their leader. It is not uncommon on the play grounds to see the boys and girls flock to an adult who is a real lover of sports. This shows that they really like older folks in their games. So whenever such an objection arises it is very necessary that the teacher or supervisor examine himself for the cause of the opposition and then speedily remedy the defect. Another reason is this, however much we regret it—nevertheless, it is true—there are many children especially in grammar grades and high school who like to use slang or suggestive language and often indulge in practices that are little less than immodest. Such children could not be friendly to a supervisor. But it is essential that _such_ children should have a supervisor for their own good. Boys and girls who conduct themselves in this fashion will not unaided make virtuous men and women. It is hard to conceive of parents who would object to supervised play, but in face of the fact that many parents are strong agents in the weakening of their children’s characters, it becomes the more necessary for the teacher to be fearless and supervise the play. A good teacher must many times do that which parents will not approve, but it is his duty to act always according to his best judgment.
The following story was told by an old man. He said that when he was young he was quite wicked; among the evils in which he indulged was evil thinking and vulgar and blasphemous language. He had become so offensive that many people shunned him. He was aware of his condition but was unable to change himself. One day a friend advised him to memorize a number of good poems and sacred songs. Whenever his mind should revert to evil thoughts or he had a desire to use vile language, he was to repeat the poems, or if he was where he could sing, he was to sing some of the sacred songs. He did as he was advised. Persistently he followed his friend’s counsel, and in less than six month’s time, he had cured himself of his evil-mindedness and the use of vile and blasphemous language.
The same principle of substitution that the old man used when he was a youth is very applicable to many problems that arise in the school-room. Of course, it must be borne in mind that the teacher does not have the child for the entire day, and that the home may offset much that the teacher does. If such is the case, the teacher’s only chance of success is to solicit the aid of the home. While he may not be able to do this in every instance, it is fair to assume he will get the home aid necessary in almost every case. All voluntary acts of the child are founded upon some motive. The teacher’s attack against any bad habit of a pupil must not be a direct attack against the habit itself. Another type of action should be substituted for it. It is a very homely illustration but nevertheless true, that a cesspool can not be removed by removing the refuse. It will fill up again. But if the pool is filled with good solid earth, the pool will not return again. So it is with an evil in any child’s or adult’s life. If the evil is removed, put a positive good habit or activity in its place or the evil habit will return. It is often the case that the evil habit crowds out the good habit after it has been admitted into the child’s life. This cannot happen under the watchful care of a good teacher.
The principle of substitution may be likened to the planting of a lily garden where once flourished a bed of thistles. The teacher must ever be on the look out for a place where he can plant a positive virtue. When planted it must be nurtured and cared for until it reaches perfection. It will then crowd out at least one vice. Discouragement should not thwart the teacher in his attempts to eliminate evil from a child’s life. His duty is clear and he should summon every aid to his assistance in order to accomplish his purpose.
The Principle of Expectancy
“Seek and ye shall find,” “Knock and it shall be opened,” are Biblical injunctions that embody more truth than appears on the surface. Just as true is it to say, “Expect and ye shall receive what ye expect.” The following true incident is very much to the point and worth repeating.
During the first few years of the nineteenth century a French lad was learning to be a drummer for the French Army. Among the various selections of army music which he was required to learn was a retreat. When it came time to learning the army retreat, he refused, telling his teacher that he never expected to beat a retreat. “But,” said the teacher, “no army can be so victorious but that sometime in its career it must retreat.” Again the boy replied, “I never expect to beat a retreat.” It was but a year later when he became a drummer boy in Napoleon’s army. In one of the hardest fought battles of Napoleon’s military career, it became apparent to Napoleon that his army would be defeated and practically all captured. To save this situation the great general ordered a retreat. The drummer boy did not beat a retreat. Napoleon angered, rode up to the boy and in harsh tones ordered the lad to beat a retreat. The lad looked up and replied, “I can not beat a retreat.” The now enraged general shouted, “Beat a retreat!” Again came the firm, resolute reply, “I can not beat a retreat.” There was in the lad’s expression a look of firm expectation that he would not need to beat a retreat. The general was furious, he whirled his horse about and derisively shouted back, “Then beat a charge.” At once that firm determination which made the boy self-confident and expectant, fired his spirit and he began to beat a charge. All the years of resolution and expectancy that were pent up in his soul now echoed and re-echoed in those drum beats. The soldiers caught the spirit of firmness and, thrilled with an ardor that they had never felt before, they followed the drummer boy to victory.
The above story illustrates the Principle of Expectancy—a principle that is fundamental in discipline. It goes much further than merely to expect a thing to be done when it is commanded. It becomes a part of the individual, if that individual has a firm grip upon the principle of expectancy. It is a principle that will inspire the teacher with self-confidence. Everyone can recall some teachers who had so firm a belief in their ability to do things and secure results as to have no fear that assigned tasks would not be well done. When the teacher has the principle of expectancy so well fused into himself as to have confidence that he will get whatever he justly seeks, then, and only then, will he be an accomplished disciplinarian.
The writer once visited the gymnasium of a public school just when the high school pupils were taking their regular daily exercises. The exercises were being directed by the principal. At the close of the gymnastic period, the principal in a whining tone of voice with these words commanded the pupils to leave the gymnasium: “I want you to leave the gymnasium now—right away now.” This teacher did not expect the pupils to leave the gymnasium promptly. He implied that much in his command. He got what he expected. Many of the pupils continued to loiter about the gymnasium striking at each other and making other useless movements. It took several more whining commands before he succeeded in getting the gymnasium cleared of pupils. In fact, some left it so reluctantly as to show that they had been antagonized by the principal. This all came about by an improper attitude of the principal in his lack of expecting his command to be obeyed. Had he said to the pupils in a firm tone of voice at the close of the gymnastic period, “This is all,” and then stepped to the door and opening it, standing aside and expecting nothing else, except that every pupil would promptly leave the building, the result would have been different. Every pupil would have left the gymnasium promptly and the spirit of antagonism would not have appeared.
In actual school work, no principle can do more good in its application than the principle of expectancy. One teacher can assign a lesson to a class without any admonishing or even the slightest suggestion that they should study the lesson. The class will return on the following day and recite a good lesson. Another teacher may assign to this same class a lesson, also without a suggestion as to the class preparing the lesson. However, in the next recitation the class will not have the lesson. Upon careful investigation it will be found that the one teacher has in his make-up that something which makes pupils feel and know that he expects nothing else than that his pupils will learn the lessons he assigns them. He does not inform his pupils in so many words that he expects them to study the lesson he assigns. He assumes as much; then, with a confidence in his pupils that is compelling he expects them to do his every bidding. The other teacher, not in words either, but in his very manner, is vacillating. He lacks confidence in himself and in his pupils. He is suspicious. He is not sure his pupils will study if he tells them to. He can not assign a lesson with a safe feeling that the pupils can do nothing else but learn it. He waits until the class comes before him, and then begins the recitation in a half-hearted way as though he knew they did not know the lesson. It is a safe assumption. He is not disappointed. The class has not prepared the lesson. There are many teachers who think themselves “smart” and wise, when they can say to a class before they have even begun the recitation, “You look as though you did not have your lesson. I can tell it by your eyes.” Such a teacher is a liar. No teacher can tell beforehand whether a class has a lesson or not. It is little wonder that so many teachers fail. They are the rocks of destruction to their own pupils.
On the other hand, in the actual discipline of the pupils, the principle of expectancy is of vital importance. Who can not recall a teacher going to the back of the school-room to correct a pupil and then walking away casting side-wise glances, and sometimes making quick turns about, as much as to tell the pupil, “I am suspicious of you.” But the information is far broader than that. That teacher by his suspicious attitude tells his pupil that he is expecting the pupil to perpetrate more mischief. If he did not think the pupil would repeat his pranks, he would not need to watch him. Thoughtful teachers can afford to reflect upon this. Nothing is more liable to breed mischief and contempt among pupils than to treat them as though they can never be trusted. A teacher practicing such an attitude of suspicion can never succeed in school-room discipline. To reprimand a pupil and then have enough confidence to expect the pupil not to repeat the offense will without fail reach the better self of the pupil. He will not repeat the offense. Teachers should always expect the best result to follow their efforts. They should make expectancy the keynote of their lives. Not to be expectant is to be suspicious. The question can very appropriately be asked: “What pupil likes to be suspected always by his teacher?” And with emphasis: “What teacher would like to be suspected?” Then it is high time that teachers expect more from their pupils. They will get more. Expect them to know their lessons, and they will prepare them. Expect them to be obedient, and they will be obedient. Expect them to be kind and courteous, and they will be kind and courteous. To live in expectancy is to live in hope. To the teacher who expects the good and hopes for the better, there can never be a dull and dreary school. The principle of expectancy is the teacher’s beacon light; he should never take his eye from it.
Again, the principle of expectancy is correlated with the other fundamental principles of discipline. A teacher who by word, a look, a story or a deed, suggests something, would indeed be foolish if he did not expect his suggestion to ripen into action. A teacher should approve the well learned lessons of a pupil, his punctuality, his efforts, not only that the child may have a reward in the form of the teacher’s approval, but also that he may learn that any activity worth while will meet with due appreciation. Such recognition by the teacher stimulates the pupil to continue in his good efforts long after being lauded. Teachers confer benefits upon pupils, thus rewarding them for their activities, expecting the pupils to continue in well-doing after having withdrawn from them these special privileges. The same can be said of the principle of substitution. It is very closely correlated with the principle of expectancy. It is apparent that a teacher would not attempt to substitute in a child’s life some good habit, if he did not expect it to crowd out an evil habit. A broad statement, but not too broad or general can be made about the principle of expectancy. It is this: just to the degree that the teacher practices and is permeated with the principle of expectancy, just so successful will he be in the use of other fundamental principles of discipline.
Firmness
Something has been said about firmness. It is implied in the principle of expectancy. The teacher who failed to get his class out of the gymnasium promptly, lacked firmness. He was weak and vacillating. A weak and vacillating character is in no sense a moral force in any community, and much less in the school-room. Pupils are quick to detect the lack of firmness in a teacher and are ever ready to make a play-thing of him. A safe rule in the school-room, and all its activities, is to decide a right course of action and then firmly follow it. Firmness with a proper determination and force on the part of the teacher adds charm to his manner and personality, that easily elicits from pupils and parents both respect and obedience.
In the preceding discussion emphasis has been placed upon five great fundamental principles in discipline. The principles discussed are: (1) The principle of Suggestion, (2) The principle of Approval, (3) The principle of Initiative in Co-operation, (4) The principle of Substitution, and (5) The principle of Expectancy. It has been clearly explained how they are applied to the school-room work. Very concrete and real illustrations have been given to show just exactly the province of each principle.
Reference has been made to these fundamental principles as devices. They are devices, or they may be designated as means to an end. It has been pointed out that the end of discipline, that is, the goal sought, is self-control. The fundamental principles when properly applied are roads, devices or means—that lead to results, which results reach the one goal, self-control. It is entirely unnecessary to indulge in a lengthy discussion of results but, suffice it to say, the teacher by this time is aware of many good results that will accrue from the discreet use of the fundamental principles in discipline. There will result the six basal elements in character—namely, the establishment of sound sentiments, a quickening of the conscience, an enlightening or moral judgment, a training of the will to act habitually from high and worthy motives, a thoughtfulness of the rights of others, and last but not least a practical religious training. “Character is the total customary reaction of an individual to his environment.”[19] The child who leaves the school well trained in these six basal elements of character, has received at the hands of the school as much, and even more, as some may suppose, than that institution owes to childhood.
Footnote 19:
Arthur Holmes, op. cit., p. 28.
Summary
1. The idea, that fundamental principles in discipline are not broadly applicable in the school-room, is false and unpedagogical.
2. Fundamental principles operate toward definite ends.
3. The failure to use fundamental principles in discipline gives rise to difficulties in school-management.
4. Like begets like. The same spirit that the teacher manifests in the school-room is the spirit that will take root and grow in the lives of his pupils.
5. The principle of suggestion drops a stimulus into the child’s mind which starts an action.
6. Suggestion for character building comes from the character of the teacher—his every-day life.
7. All of the activities of the teacher are suggestive of good or bad to the pupil.
8. Negative suggestions often incite the very actions they are supposed to prevent.
9. Codes of rules against numerous offenses, usually suggest those offenses to pupils. They are reminded to do that which they would never have thought of, had it not been suggested.
10. Many of the activities of life depend upon the law of suggestion.
11. Suggestion is a potent agency in volition.
12. Leading suggestion is a name applied to a principle which says, “Suggest only a small part of a duty at a time, then a little more and so on until all the duty has been done.” Very often, to suggest a long series of acts to the child does not appeal to him effectively.
13. Imitation is closely related to suggestion. Pupils especially imitate and make use of suggestions from those whom they like.
14. The principle of approval in discipline is valuable in that it appeals to the child by showing one’s satisfaction and pleasure in the good work he has done.
15. The opposite of approval is fault finding. It is not too radical to say that a teacher should never be guilty of fault finding.
16. Many faults in children can be eradicated by a judicious use of the principle of approval.
17. It is an easy matter to discourage and ruin the best pupils by constant fault finding.
18. By approving what little of good there is in a bad child, the child may be improved, and helped to become a good child.
19. The teacher who does not embody in his life worthy traits of character, can not effectively approve them in other lives. The source of approval is important.
20. Encouragement is a form of approval.
21. Sometimes the best pupils have met grievous obstacles and need positive encouragement.
22. The fundamental principle of Initiative in Co-operation may be applied to advantage in discipline in several ways. A word, a look, a deed, a material object, a privilege—all may be instruments of initiative in co-operation.
23. Doing a favor must not be confused with the practice of buying good behavior or work, because the effect is entirely different.
24. Pupils cannot be taught to govern themselves if they are always governed by some stronger will. Children must be allowed to form judgments of their own so that later they can make their own good decisions.
25. Often even prudent concessions are denied to pupils; the result is that they gratify themselves and as a rule fall into hurtful excesses.
26. Consistency on the part of the teacher is necessary if initiative in co-operation is to be prudently applied.
27. A teacher cannot be consistent when he is liberal in kindnesses one day and on another day makes no concessions at all.
28. Care must be exercised in using the principle of initiative in co-operation, so that all pupils are benefited as nearly alike as their merits will allow. Unless teachers are careful, they will be accused of being partial.
29. The principle of substitution assumes that a positive virtue must be cultivated in a child, when we desire to remove a vice.
30. The institutions for reforming bad boys from the large cities are conducted on the principle of substitution. The boy’s life is filled with useful work and recreation which replaces his idle habits.
31. In the school-room it is highly essential that the day be filled with useful work and play; if there is idle time, pupils will use it in mischief-making.
32. Free-for-all recesses and noon intermissions are breeding spots in the school day for mischief and evil.
33. Supervised play is the only solution for the wise use of the play period and the crowding out of occasion for evil at school.
34. The teacher should pay no attention to the objections to supervised play. The objections come from those who misunderstand or those who have low motives.
35. The principle of expectancy is closely correlated with the other great principles underlying discipline.
36. Just to the extent that the teacher is able to use the fundamental principle of expectancy, and only so far will he be successful in the use of the other fundamental principles of discipline.
37. It is necessary to use firmness and determination with the principle of expectancy.
38. The fundamental principles of discipline are the teacher’s devices, or means, which he must use to obtain the end of discipline—self-control.
THE END
INDEX
Aesthetic Appreciation, 63-65
Approval, 133-139
Associations, 46-48
Cheerfulness, 71
Color Schemes, 98
Confidence, 25
Consistency, 153
Corporal Punishment, 18
Courage, 72
Discipline, 105-113
Dispositions of Pupils, 115-119
Dress, 73-74
Education of Teacher, 32
Encouragement, 139
Expectancy, 162
Fault Finding, 133
Firmness, 168
Fundamental Principles in Discipline, 115-173 Summary, 170-173
General Principles, Value of, 115
Gossiping, 45
Health, 77-78
Honesty, 49
Imitation, 131-133
Initiative in Co-operation, 142-153
Impartiality, 83
Intemperance, 54
Janitor, 101
Leading Suggestion, 129
Morality, Meaning of, 42
Morals of Teacher, 41-42
Mottoes, 96
Nature, 33-35
Neatness, 59
Patience, 82
Pictures, 95
Reading, 36-37
Religion, 61
Rules, 122
School-grounds, 93
School, The, 92-104 Summary, 103-104
School-room, The, 92
Self Confidence, 67
Social Life, 82
Substitution, 155
Suggestion, 119
Sympathy with Pupils, 68
System, 78
Tact, 14, 66
Teacher, The, 27-91 Summary, 85-91
Temper, 57
Ventilation, 99
Transcriber’s Note
_Italic_ words in the original text have been marked in this version with underscores.
A few minor typographical errors have been silently corrected.
End of Project Gutenberg's Practical School Discipline, by Ray Coppock Beery