Chapter 6

CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS

78. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. A sentence may consist of two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal clause and one or more dependent clauses.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined by conjunctions; such as, _hence, but, and, although_, etc.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs; such as, _where, when_, etc., or by relative pronouns; as, _who, what_, etc. These dependent clauses may have the same office in the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (See §7.)

79. CASE AND NUMBER OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Failure to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns has already been touched upon (see §29), but a further mention of this fault may well be made here.

The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, _I wonder WHOM will be chosen_, is wrong, because the relative here is the subject of _will be chosen_, not the object of _wonder_, and should have the nominative form _who_. Corrected, it reads, _I wonder WHO will be chosen_. Examine the following sentences:

Wrong: We know _who_ we mean.

Right: We know _whom_ we mean.

Wrong: You may give it to _whoever_ you wish.

Right: You may give it to _whomever_ you wish.

Wrong: Do you know _whom_ it is?

Right: Do you know _who_ it is? (Attribute complement.)

Wrong: Everybody _who were_ there were disappointed. (Disagreement in number.)

Right: Everybody _who was_ there was disappointed.

The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, the sentence, _He gave it to WHO had the clearest right_, is correct, because _who_ is the subject of the verb _had_, and therefore in the nominative case. _Give it to WHOMEVER they name_, is right, because _whomever_ is the object of _they name_.

Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, to use the proper case. Say, _Whom are you looking for?_ not, _Who are you looking for?_

NOTE. Some writers justify the use of _who_ in sentences like the last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this book, the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to adhere to the strictly grammatical form.

EXERCISE 58

_In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those italicized:_

1. _Who whom_ do you wish to see? 2. You will please write out the name of _whoever whomever_ you want. 3. I saw _who whom_ was there. 4. _Who whom_ was it you saw? 5. _Who whom_ did you see? 6. John did not know _whom who_ to ask. 7. Why did he not ask _whomever whoever_ was there? 8. _Who whom_ can tell the difference? 9. Give it to _whoever whomever_ you please. 10. None of those who _were was_ wanted _was were_ there. 11. The one of those who _were was_ wanted was not there. 12. He is one of those fellows who _are is_ always joking. 13. _Whom who_ was called "The Rail Splitter?" 14. Do you not know _whom who_ it was? 15. That is one of the birds that _is are_ very rare. 16. One of the books which _was were_ brought was one hundred years old. 17. I am not among those _who whom were was_ there. 18. Only one of the men who _were was_ on board survived. 19. Everyone else who _was were_ there _was were_ lost. 20. I am the one of the three men who _is am are_ guilty. 21. He was chosen one of the four speakers who _was were_ to speak on Commencement Day. 22. It was one of the books which _were was_ being sought by the librarian. 23. Give it to one of the men _who whom_ is found there. 24. To _who whom_ did you give it? 25. It was for _whomever whoever_ was present. 26. Ask _whomever whoever_ is nearest the door.

80. CONJUNCTIVE OR RELATIVE ADVERBS. It is better to use a _WHEN_ CLAUSE only in the subordinate part of the sentence, to state the time of an event. Compare the following:

Bad: He was turning the corner, when suddenly he saw a car approaching. Good: When he was turning the corner, he suddenly saw a car approaching.

Bad: When the news of the fire came, it was still in the early morning. Good: The news of the fire came when it was still in the early morning.

81. Do not use a _WHEN_ or a _WHERE_ CLAUSE in defining a subject or in place of a predicate noun.

Bad: Commencement is when one formally completes his school course. Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course.

Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars. Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars.

82. _So, then_, and _also_, the conjunctive adverbs, should not be used to unite coördinate verbs in a sentence unless _and_ or _but_ be used in addition to the adverb.

Bad: The boys' grades are low, _so_ they indicate lack of application. Good: The boys' grades are low, _and so_ indicate lack of application.

Bad: He read for a while, _then_ fell asleep. Good: He read for a while, _and then_ fell asleep.

Bad: I'll be down next week; _also_ I shall bring Jack along. Good: I'll be down next week; _and also_ I shall bring Jack along.

EXERCISE 59

_Correct the following sentences:_

1. Anarchism is when one believes in no government. 2. I am studying German, also French. 3. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. 4. I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire. 5. I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office. 6. I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones. 7. Death is when one ceases to live. 8. Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work. 9. He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped. 10. He loves good music, also good pictures. 11. A restaurant is where meals are served.

83. CONJUNCTIONS. There are certain conjunctions, and also certain pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble.

AND or BUT should not be used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause; as, _It was a new valise AND differing much from his old one_. Say instead, _It was a new valise, differing much from his old one_, or _It was a new valise, and differed very much from his old one_. Similarly, _It was a new book WHICH_ (not _and which_) _interested him very much_. This "and which" construction is a frequent error; _and which_ should never be used unless there is more than one relative clause, and then never with the first one.

BUT or FOR should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding statements. Both of the following sentences are bad by reason of this error: _He likes geometry, BUT fails in algebra, BUT studies it hard, He read all night, FOR the book interested him, FOR it was along the line of his ambition_.

THAN and AS should not be followed by objective pronouns in sentences like this: _I am as large AS HIM_. The verb in these sentences is omitted. If it is supplied, the error will be apparent. The sentence would then read, _I am as large as HIM (is large)_. The correct form is, _I am as large as he (is large)_. Similarly, _He is taller than I (am tall), She is brighter than HE (is bright)_.

AS may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. _He is AS tall AS I_. The first _as_ is an adverb, the second _as_ is a conjunction. _As_ is properly used as an adverb when the equality is asserted, but, when the equality is denied, _so_ should be used in its place. _He is AS old AS I_, is correct, but the denial should be, _He is NOT SO old AS I_. After _not_ do not use _as_ when _as_ is an adverb.

NEITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by NOR; as, _Neither he NOR (not or) I can come. Neither_ should never be followed by _or_.

EITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by OR.

84. PLACING OF CORRELATIVES. The correlatives, such as _neither--nor, either--or, not only--but also_, should be placed in clear relation to similar parts of speech or similar parts of the sentence. One should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some other part of speech.

Bad: He _not only_ brought a book, _but also_ a pencil. Good: He brought _not only_ a book _but also_ a pencil.

Bad: He would offer _neither_ reparation _nor_ would he apologize. Good: _Neither_ would he offer reparation _nor_ would he apologize. Good: He would offer _neither_ reparation _nor_ apology.

85. The prepositions _without, except, like_, and the adverb _directly_ should not be used as conjunctions.

Wrong: _Without_ (_unless_) you attend to class-room work, you cannot pass.

Wrong: This she would not do _except_ (_unless_) we promised to pay at once.

Wrong: I acted just _like_ (_as_) all the others (did).

Wrong: _Directly_ (_as soon as_) he came, we harnessed the horses.

EXERCISE 60

_Correct the following sentences:_

1. Mary is as old as her. 2. I read as much as him. 3. He either wore his coat or a sort of vest. 4. He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed all night. 5. We are better players than them. 6. He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and doing many absurd things. 7. There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very entertaining. 8. They work harder than us. 9. John is not as tall as you. 10. Neither John or James is as tall as you. 11. I admire Mary more than she. 12. That can't be done without you get permission from the principal. 13. He dresses just like I do. 14. Directly he came we launched the canoes. 15. This cannot be done except you are a senior. 16. Neither she nor I was present. 17. He not only had a trained pig but also a goose. 18. Mary is not as pretty as Helen. 19. The men neither interested him nor the places. 20. He has traveled more than me. 21. We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has traveled so much. 22. It is a good book and which has much valuable information. 23. It was a rough town and harboring many criminals. 24. He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for athletics. 25. He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics.

EXERCISE 61

_Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly used:_

When, where, than, as--as, so--as, neither--nor, not only--but also, either--or, except, like, without, directly.

86. PREPOSITIONS. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. Note the following brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions to be used with each:

agree _with_ a person differ _from_ (person or thing) agree _to_ a proposition differ _from_ or _with_ an opinion bestow _upon_ different _from_ compare _with_ (to determine value) glad _of_ compare _to_ (because of similarity) need _of_ comply _with_ part _from_ (a person) confide _in_ (to trust in) part _with_ (a thing) confide _to_ (to intrust to) profit _by_ confer _on_ (to give) prohibit _from_ confer _with_ (to talk with) reconcile _to_ (a person) convenient _to_ (a place) reconcile _with_ (a statement) convenient _for_ (a purpose) scared _by_ dependent _on_ think _of_ or _about_

Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted:

continue _on_ _down_ until covered _over_ inside _of_ off _of_ outside _of_ started _out_ where _to_? wish _for_ to come remember _of_ more than you think _for_

Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness of the sentence.

Bad: He is a dealer and shipper _of_ coal.

Good: He is a dealer _in_ and shipper _of_ coal.

EXERCISE 62

_Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions listed under the first paragraph of_ §86.

_Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph of_ §86.

QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

SENTENCES, PARTS OF SPEECH, AND SENTENCE ELEMENTS. What are the four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of speech? Define each. What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? What is the difference between a principal clause and a subordinate clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial clause. An adjective clause. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. An adjective phrase. What is an attribute complement? Illustrate. What is an object complement? Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference between simple, complex, and compound sentences.

NOUNS. What is the difference between singular and plural number? How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in _s, ch, sh, x_, or _z_? In _y_? In _f_ or _fe_? In _o_? Of letters, figures, etc.? Of compound nouns? Of proper names and titles? How is the possessive case of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in _s_ or in an _s_ sound? Of a compound noun or of a group of words? What is gender? How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? What is the difference between common and proper nouns?

PRONOUNS. What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a pronoun? What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by "person" in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person. Name the pronouns that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What pronouns may be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons of either sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? To animals? What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are they referred to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after _everybody_? After _some one_? After _some people_? After two nouns connected by _or_? By _nor_? By _and_? What are relative pronouns? Name them. With what kind of antecedents may each be used? What is the difference between the explanatory relative and the restrictive relative? Illustrate. What is an interrogative pronoun? What pronouns may be used only in the nominative case? In the objective case? When should the nominative case be used? The objective? The possessive? May _thou_ and _you_ be used in the same sentence? When should _but that_ be used, and when _but what_? May _them_ be used adjectively? May _which_ be used with a clause as an antecedent? May _which_ and _that_, or _who_ and _that_ be used in the same sentence with the same antecedent?

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. Illustrate. What is comparison? What is the positive degree, the comparative, the superlative? Illustrate each. May one say, _He is the largest of the two?_ Reason? _He is the larger of the three?_ Reason? _He is the largest of all?_ Reason? Name three adjectives which cannot be compared. May one say, _Paris is larger than any city?_ Reason? _Paris is larger than all cities?_ Reason? _Paris is the largest of any other city?_ Reason? Is a singular or plural noun demanded by _every_? By _two_? By _various_? By _each_? With how many objects may _either_ be used? _Neither_? Where should the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant by a double negative? Illustrate. What is its effect? What is the definite article?

VERBS. What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? Illustrate. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the verbs, _go, see, begin, come, drink, write_. What is a transitive verb? Illustrate. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. What is the difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive voice. Distinguish between the use of _sit_ and _set_. Of _lay_ and _lie_. Of _rise_ and _raise_. What is the general rule for the use of the subjunctive mode? In what way and where does the subjunctive of _be_ differ from the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs differ in the form of the subjunctive? In what respects should a verb agree with its subject? Does the form of the subject always determine its number? What should be the guide in determining whether to use a singular or plural verb? What class of subjects may not be used with _don't, can't_, etc.? What determines whether to use a singular or a plural verb after _who_, _which_, and _that_? What form of the verb is used after _you_? After _they_? When are _shall_ and _should_ used with _I_ and _we_? When with other subjects? What rule governs their use in questions. What form is used in dependent clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood? In contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of _may_ and _might_ from _can_ and _could_. What is a "dangling participle"? Is it an error? May the gerund be correctly used without any grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence? As the object of a preposition is a participle or gerund used? Which is used adjectively? Which may be used in connection with a possessive substantive as a modifier? When it is dependent on another verb, in what case should the present infinitive be used? When the perfect infinitive? What is a "split infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound predicate agree in tense?

CONNECTIVES. By what are independent clauses connected? Dependent clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. Should a _when_ clause be used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the sentence? May _so, then_, or _also_ be used alone as conjunctive adverbs? May _and_ or _but_ be used to join a dependent clause to a principal clause? What case should follow _than_ or _as_? Should _neither_ be followed by _nor_ or _or_?

A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR

EXERCISE 63

_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each sentence, in parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph in which is discussed the question involved:_

1. He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.) 2. It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.) 3. He said he should come if he could. (68.) 4. Can I use your pencil? (69.) 5. If you were I, what would you do? (68.) 6. We would like to go. (68.) 7. Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is present. (63-5.) 8. He only spoke of history, not of art. (45.) 9. Socialists don't have no use for trusts. (46.) 10. This is John's book. (13.) 11. I feared that they should not come. (68.) 12. Mother's and father's death. (15-4.) 13. Mary was eager to have gone. (73.) 14. The boys, as well as their teacher, is to be praised. (64-1.) 15. The members of Congress watch each other. (44.) 16. I fear that I will take cold. (67.) 17. Some one has forgotten their umbrella. (20.) 18. Neither of the three is well. (43.) 19. Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? (29) (41.) 20. He is determined that he shall go away. (67.) 21. Neither John nor James brought their books. (22.) 22. Whom did the man say he was? (29.) 23. His clothes look prettily. (38.) 24. The play progressed smooth until the last act. (38.) 25. Henry and William is to come to-morrow. (22.) 26. This is the lesser of the two evils. (40.) 27. Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.) 28. I am believed to be him. (29.) 29. He sings very illy. (40.) 30. When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep for them to work. (54.) 31. She is very discontented. (48.) 32. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) 33. The barrel bursted from the pressure. (54.) 34. Shall my work soon begin? (66.) 35. He is six foot tall. (42.) 36. Seeing his mistake, I was not urged further by him. (71.) 37. Will the dog bite? (66.) 38. I am believed to be he. (29.) 39. I am eager to have seen it. (73.) 40. I think it shall rain soon. (67.) 41. She showed the dish to Mary and I. (29.) 42. Mary asked her mother to wash her face. (34-4.) 43. Who did the man say he was? (29.) 44. He deserved the place, for he is well educated, for he has been through Oxford University. (83.) 45. Choose who you please. (29.) 46. It don't make any difference about that. (64-5.) 47. The pump was froze fast. (54.) 48. A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (13-12.) 49. Wagner was never too rattled to play. (48.) 50. It is him. (29.) 51. He did it hisself. (31.) 52. He eat all there was on the table. (54.) 53. He sent a chest of tea, and it was made of tin. (34-4.) 54. The murderer was hung at noon. (54.) 55. It is a queer kind of a book. (47.) 56. You may give it to whoever you wish. (32.) 57. Whoever is nominated, will you vote for him? (32.) 58. I think I will find the work easy. (67.) 59. He sent his son abroad, being anxious for his health. (71.) 60. Neither they nor Mary was there. (22.) 61. Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (15-6.) 62. Goliath was slew by David. (54.) 63. Myself and mother are sick. (30.) 64. John is as good, if not better than she. (41-4.) 65. If anybody creates a disturbance, have the police put them out. (21.) 66. The paper was addressed to John and herself. (30.) 67. John's and William's dog. (15-4.) 68. Tell the boy and girl to come here. (47.) 69. Everybody's else mail has came. (15, 54.) 70. He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the paper. (34-6.) 71. Awake me early in the morning. (57.) 72. If he be honest, he has not shown it. (60.) 73. Either Adams or Monroe were president. (63-4.) 74. Washington, the general and the president, was born on February 22d. (47.) 75. Horne's and Company's Store. (15-4.) 76. A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (54.) 77. I sat my chair by the window. (57.) 78. I sat myself down to rest. (57.) 79. I can't hardly see to write. (46.) 80. John is one of the people who comes each night. (64-4.) 81. He laid on the couch all day. (57.) 82. Death is when one ceases to live. (81.) 83. I was told to set here. (57.) 84. Iron is more useful than any other metal. (41-3.) 85. I not only told him, but also Morton. (84.) 86. McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. (40.) 87. It weighs several ton. (42.) 88. John is not as bright as Henry. (83.) 89. Germany and France's ships. (15-4.) 90. John's employer's wife's friend. (15-5.) 91. You had ought to go home. (54.) 92. This is the man who wants the ticket. (26.) 93. Which is the larger of the three? (41-1.) 94. An axe is the tool which they use. (26.) 95. It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. (26.) 96. The horse which we drove, and the horse which you had last week are the same. (26, 34-5.) 97. I don't like those kind of people. (42.) 98. I do not question but what he is right. (34-6.) 99. Let him lay there. (57.) 100. My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (29.) 101. American and English grammar is alike. (63-1.) 102. William and Mary has to go to the city. (63-2.) 103. The boy, and not his parents, were wrong. (63-3.) 104. The price of meat has raised. (57.) 105. This train runs slow. (38.) 106. Which is the best of the two? (41-1.) 107. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) 108. Without the safety catch is raised, the gun can't be discharged. (85.) 109. The family is all at home. (62.) 110. The horse run the mile in two minutes. (54.) 111. This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (46, 54.) 112. The knife has laid there all day. (57.) 113. The noise of the street was very loud, which kept me awake. (34-9.) 114. The jury has agreed. (62.) 115. Such things make him terrible nervous. (38.) 116. Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29.) 117. The army were defeated. (62.) 118. If I was you, I should go at once. (60.) 119. She may go if she wishes or not. (76.) 120. Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (79.) 121. I like her better than you. (76.) 122. Who do you want? (79.) 123. Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college. (13-13.) 124. By law, no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. (13.) 125. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. (80.) 126. When was you there? (64-2.) 127. He is as tall as me. (83.) 128. Neither John nor her will come. (29.) 129. You hear such statements everywheres. (34-8, 40.) 130. You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (79.) 131. I wish you were more like she. (29.) 132. Winter, with her frost, destroyed them all. (20.) 133. Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones. (21.) 134. He is the only one of the members who pay dues. (64-4.) 135. Was it necessary, I should jump? (60.) 136. The production of oranges were encouraged. (64-3.) 137. The ship, with all its passengers, were lost. (64-1.) 138. He has fell from his chair. (57.) 139. I will raise and go to my father. (57.) 140. The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. (57.) 141. They make pottery in Trenton. (34-8.) 142. Iron is more useful than all metals. (41-3.) 143. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. (75.) 144. He won't come, except we pay his expenses. (85.) 145. Neither German or French is taught there. (83.) 146. We have needed you and did our best to find you. (75.) 147. He awoke at nine. (57.) 148. I wish I was a bird. (60.) 149. If it rains, I stay at school. (60.) 150. Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. (34-2.) 151. The Indians, they hid behind trees. (34-3.) 152. We started out for the city at noon. (86.) 153. The king, he said they should kill him. (34-3.) 154. Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (86.)