Chapter 5

VERBS

49. A VERB has already been defined as a word stating something about the subject. Verbs are inflected or changed to indicate the time of the action as past, present, or future; as, _I talk, I talked, I shall talk_, etc. Verbs also vary to indicate completed or incompleted action; as, _I have talked, I shall have talked_, etc. To these variations, which indicate the time of the action, the name TENSE is given.

The full verbal statement may consist of several words; as, _He MAY HAVE GONE home_. Here the verb is _may have gone_. The last word of such a verb phrase is called the PRINCIPAL VERB, and the other words the AUXILIARIES. In the sentence above, _go (gone)_ is the principal verb, and _may_ and _have_ are the auxiliaries.

50. In constructing the full form of the verb or verb phrase there are three distinct parts from which all other forms are made. These are called the PRINCIPAL PARTS.

The First Principal Part, since it is the part by which the verb is referred to as a word, may be called the NAME-FORM. The following are name-forms: _do, see, come, walk, pass_.

The Second Principal Part is called the PAST TENSE. It is formed by adding _ed_ to the name-form; as, _walked, pushed, passed_. These verbs that add _ed_ are called Regular Verbs. The verb form is often entirely changed; as, _done (do), saw (see), came (come)_. These verbs are called Irregular Verbs.

The Third Principal Part is called the PAST PARTICIPLE. It is used mainly in expressing completed action or in the passive voice. In regular verbs the past participle is the same in form as the past tense. In irregular verbs it may differ entirely from both the name-form and the past tense, or it may resemble one or both of them. Examples: _done (do, did), seen (see, saw), come (come, came), set (set, set)_.

51. THE NAME-FORM, when unaccompanied by auxiliaries, is used with all subjects, except those in the third person singular, to assert action in the present time or present tense; as, _I go, We come, You see, Horses run_.

The name-form is also used with various auxiliaries (_may, might, can, must, will, should, shall_, etc.) to assert futurity, determination, possibility, possession, etc. Examples: _I may go, We shall come, You can see, Horses should run_.

By preceding it with the word _to_, the name-form is used to form what is called the PRESENT INFINITIVE; as, _I wish to go, I hope to see_.

What may be called the S-FORM of the verb, or the SINGULAR form, is usually constructed by adding _s_ or _es_ to the name-form. The s-form is used with singular subjects in the third person; as, _He goes, She comes, It runs, The dog trots_.

The s-form is found in the third personal singular of the present tense. In other tenses, if present at all, the s-form is in the auxiliary, where the present tense of the auxiliary is used to form some other tense of the principal verb. Examples: _He has_ (present tense), _He has gone_ (perfect tense), _He has been seen_.

Some verbs have no s-form; as, _will, shall, may_. The verb _be_ has two irregular s-forms: _Is_, in the present tense, and _was_ in the past tense. The s-form of _have_ is _has_.

52. The past tense always stands alone in the predicate; i. e., IT SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH ANY AUXILIARIES. To use it so, however, is one of the most frequent errors in grammar. The following are past tense forms: _went, saw, wore, tore_. To say, therefore, _I have saw, I have went, It was tore, They were wore_, would be grossly incorrect.

53. The third principal part, the past participle, on the other hand, CAN NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. The following are distinctly past participle forms: _done, seen, sung_, etc. One could not then properly say, _I seen, I done, I sung_, etc.

The distinction as to use with and without auxiliaries applies, of course, only to irregular verbs. In regular verbs, the past tense and past participle are always the same, and so no error could result from their confusion.

The past participle is used to form the _Perfect Infinitives_; as, _to have gone, to have seen, to have been seen_.

54. The following is a list of the principal parts of the most important irregular verbs. The list should be mastered thoroughly. The student should bear in mind always that, THE PAST TENSE FORM SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH AN AUXILIARY, and that THE PAST PARTICIPLE FORM SHOULD NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY.

In some instances verbs have been included in the list below which are always regular in their forms, or which have both regular and irregular forms. These are verbs for whose principal parts incorrect forms are often used.

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS

_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ awake awoke or awaked awaked begin began begun beseech besought besought bid (to order or to greet) bade bidden or bid bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid blow blew blown break broke broken burst burst burst choose chose chosen chide chid chidden or chid come came come deal dealt dealt dive dived dived

_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ do did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk or drank drive drove driven eat ate eaten fall fell fallen flee fled fled fly flew flown forsake forsook forsaken forget forgot forgot or forgotten freeze froze frozen get got got (gotten) give gave given go went gone hang (clothes) hung hung hang (a man) hanged hanged know knew known lay laid laid lie lay lain mean meant meant plead pleaded pleaded prove proved proved ride rode ridden raise raised raised rise rose risen run ran run see saw seen seek sought sought set set set shake shook shaken shed shed shed shoe shod shod sing sang sung sit sat sat slay slew slain sink sank sunk speak spoke spoken

_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ steal stole stolen swim swam swum take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn throw threw thrown tread trod trod or trodden wake woke or waked woke or waked wear wore worn weave wove woven write wrote written

NOTES.--_Ought_ has no past participle. It may then never be used with an auxiliary. _I had ought to go_ is incorrect. The idea would be amply expressed by _I ought to go_.

MODEL CONJUGATIONS of the verbs _to be_ and _to see_ in all forms are given under §77 at the end of this chapter.

EXERCISE 29

_In the following sentences change the italicized verb so as to use the past tense, and then so as to use the past participle:_

Example: (Original sentence), _The guests begin to go home._ (Changed to past tense), _The guests began to go home._ (Changed to past participle), _The guests have begun to go home._

1. Our books _lie_ on the mantel. 2. John _comes_ in and _lays_ his books on the desk. 3. I _see_ the parade. 4. He _runs_ up the road. 5. They _set_ their chairs in a row. 6. The noise _wakes_ me. 7. Cæsar _bids_ him enter. 8. If they _prove_ their innocence, they should be discharged. 9. His friends _plead_ strongly for him. 10. Do you know what they _mean_ by that? 11. I _awake_ early every morning. 12. He _begins_ to think of strange things. 13. The children _beseech_ me to go with them. 14. My mother _bids_ me to say that she will be here at six. 15. Smith _bids_ fifty dollars for the chair. 16. My servants _break_ many dishes. 17. They _choose_ their associates. 18. The box _bursts_ open. 19. His mother _chides_ him for his misbehavior. 20. He _comes_ here every day. 21. I _deal_ there this week. 22. The boys _dive_ beautifully. 23. You _do_ so much more than is necessary. 24. They _draw_ lots for the watch. 25. Jones _drinks_ this wine very seldom. 26. They _drive_ over to Milton once a week. 27. They _drive_ a sorrel horse. 28. The cows _eat_ grass. 29. The Gauls _flee_ before Cæsar. 30. The swallows all _fly_ into the chimney at evening. 31. They _forsake_ the cause without any reason. 32. Cæsar _gives_ them no answer. 33. They _get_ no money for their services. 34. You _forget_ that we have no right to do that. 35. Water _freezes_ at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit. 36. The ball _goes_ to the opposing team. 37. You _hang_ the rope on the tree. 38. The sheriff _hangs_ the murderer at noon. 39. I _know_ of nothing more worrying. 40. She _lays_ the knife on the table. 41. They _lie_ in bed until eleven. 42. Why they _rise_ so late, I do not know. 43. They _raise_ no objection. 44. John _runs_ very rapidly. 45. You _sit_ very quietly. 46. Cæsar _seeks_ to learn the intention of the enemy. 47. The politician vigorously _shakes_ all hands. 48. The roof _sheds_ water in all storms. 49. The blacksmith _shoes_ horses. 50. The choir _sings_ for each service. 51. You _speak_ too rapidly to be easily understood. 52. Few men _steal_ because they want to. 53. I _swim_ one hundred yards very readily. 54. They _teach_ all the elementary branches there. 55. You _take_ all subscriptions for the concert. 56. Those clothes _tear_ readily. 57. They _tread_ the grapes in making wine. 58. Who _throws_ paper on the floor? 59. I always _wear_ old clothes in which to work. 60. She _writes_ to her mother daily. 61. They _weave_ the best rugs in Philadelphia.

EXERCISE 30

_Write original sentences containing the following verbs, correctly used:_

Begun, blew, bidden, bad, chose, broke, come, dealt, dived, drew, driven, flew, forsook, froze, given, give, gave, went, hanged, knew, rode, pleaded, ran, seen, saw, shook, shod, sung, slew, spoke, swum, taken, torn, wore, threw, woven, wrote, written.

EXERCISE 31

_Insert the proper form of the verb in the following sentences. The verb to be used is in black-faced type at the beginning of each group:_

1. BEGIN. He ---- to act at once. The reports ---- to disturb him a little. He has ---- to feel hurt over them. 2. BID. The proprietor ---- us a pleasant good day. No matter how much he ---- the auctioneer will not hear him. We were ---- to enter. 3. BLOW. The cornetist ---- with all his might. The ship was ---- about all day. The wind does ---- terrifically sometimes. It may ---- to-night. The wind ---- all last night. 4. BREAK. He fell and ---- his leg. It is well that his neck was not ----. 5. BURST. During the battle the shells frequently ---- right over us. Oaken casks have often ----. 6. CHIDE. He ---- us frequently about our actions. He was never ---- himself. 7. CHOOSE. They ---- him president. They have ---- wisely. 8. COME. He ---- at nine to-day. He has always ---- earlier heretofore. Let him ---- when he wishes. 9. DEAL. Before explaining the game, he ---- out the cards. 10. DIVE. Twice last summer he ---- off the bridge. 11. DO. Thou canst not say I ---- it. He often ---- it. 12. DRAW. The picture was ---- by a famous artist. He formerly ---- very well, but I think that now he ---- very poorly. 13. DRIVE. The horse was ---- twenty miles. He almost ---- it to death. 14. EAT. He ---- everything which the others had not ----. How can he ---- that? 15. FLEE. Since the cashier has ----, they think that a warrant would be useless. 16. FLY. The air-ship ---- three hundred miles on its first trip. That it has ---- so far is sufficient proof of its success. 17. FORSAKE. He ---- his new friends just as he had ---- all the others. 18. FREEZE. The man was ---- stiff. He evidently ---- to death so easily because he had been so long without food. 19. GIVE. She was not ---- as much as her sisters. Her father ---- her less because of her extravagance. But, he now ---- her enough to make it up. 20. GO. She ---- to school to-day. She ---- yesterday. She has ---- every day this month. 21. KNOW. He ---- that he cannot live. As long as I have ---- him, this is the first time I ever ---- he was married. 22. MEAN. He ---- to do right, and has always ---- to do so. 23. RIDE. They ---- as if they had ---- a long distance. They say that they ---- from Larimer this morning. 24. PLEAD. The mother ---- an hour for her son's life. 25. PROVE. They ---- him a thief in the eyes of the people, even if he was not ---- so to the satisfaction of the jury. 26. RUN. John ---- the race as though he had ---- races all his life. The race was ---- very rapidly. Soon after that race, he ---- in another race. 27. SEE. Smith, who has just arrived, says he ---- two men skulking along the road. He was not ---- by them. That play is the best I ever ----. 28. SEEK. The detectives ---- all through the slums for him. Now they ---- him in the better parts of the city. No criminal was ever more eagerly ----. 29. SHAKE. During the day his hand was ---- five hundred times. He ---- hands with all who came. 30. SHOE. The entire army was ---- with Blank's shoes. 31. SING. The choir ---- the anthem as they had never ---- it before. They always ---- it well. 32. SINK. The stone ---- as soon as it is in the water. The ship was ---- in forty fathoms of water. They ---- the ship in 1861. 33. SPEAK. Though they claimed that they always ---- to her, she was really never ---- to by any member of the family. 34. STEAL. The money was ----; whether or not he ---- it I do not know. Everyone believes that he has frequently ---- goods from the store. 35. TAKE. I was ---- for him several times that day. No one ever ---- me for him before. 36. TEACH. John ---- school every day. He has ---- for ten years. He first ---- when he was eighteen years old. 37. TEAR. The dog ---- at the paper until it was ---- entirely to pieces. He ---- up everything he finds. 38. THROW. He was ---- by a horse which never before ---- anyone. 39. WEAR. The trousers were ---- entirely out in a month, but I ---- the coat and vest for six months. 40. WEAVE. This carpet was ---- at Philadelphia. The manufacturers say they never ---- a better one, and they ---- the best in the country. 41. WRITE. Although he has ---- several times, he has never ---- anything about that. He ---- to me just last week. He ---- at least once a month.

EXERCISE 32

_Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following sentences:_

1. He plead all day to be released. 2. The horse was rode to death. 3. The letter was wrote before he knowed the truth. 4. He was immediately threw out of the room. 5. She run around all day and then was sick the next day. 6. I never seen anything like it. 7. He was very much shook by the news. 8. The matter was took up by the committee. 9. The horse has been stole from the owner. 10. Goliath was slew by David. 11. The words have been spoke in anger. 12. I have went to church every day. 13. Was the river froze enough for skating? 14. He begun to take notice immediately. 15. The umbrella was blew to pieces. 16. I have broke my ruler. 17. Jones was chose as leader of the class. 18. He said he come as soon as he could. 19. I done it. 20. I have never did anything so foolish. 21. I have ate all that was in the lunch-box. 22. The horse was drove ten miles.

EXERCISE 33

_Write sentences in which the following verb forms are properly used:_

begun, blew, broke, chose, come, came, done, did, drew, drunk, drove, ate, flew, forsook, froze, forgot, gave, give, went, hang, hung, knew, rode, run, shook, sung, slew, spoke, stole, took, tore, threw, wore, wrote.

55. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. A TRANSITIVE VERB is one in which the action of the verb goes over to a receiver; as, _He KILLED the horse, I KEEP my word_. In both these sentences, the verb serves to transfer the action from the subject to the object or receiver of the action. The verbs in these sentences, and all similar verbs, are transitive verbs. All others, in which the action does not go to a receiver, are called INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

56. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. The ACTIVE VOICE represents the subject as the doer of the action; as, _I tell, I see, He makes chairs_. The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject as the receiver of the action; as, _I am told, I am seen, I have been seen, Chairs are made by me_. Since only transitive verbs can have a receiver of the action, only transitive verbs can have both active and passive voice.

57. There are a few special verbs in which the failure to distinguish between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads to frequent error. The most important of these verbs are the following: _sit, set, awake, wake, lie, lay, rise, arise, raise, fell_, and _fall_. Note again the principal parts of these verbs:

wake (to rouse another) woke, waked woke, waked awake (to cease to sleep) awoke, awaked awaked

fell (to strike down) felled felled fall (to topple over) fell fallen

lay (to place) laid laid lie (to recline) lay lain

raise (to cause to ascend) raised raised (a)rise (to ascend) (a)rose (a)risen

set (to place) set set sit (to rest) sat sat

The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive, and the second is intransitive. Only the first, then, of each pair can have an object or can be used in the passive voice.

NOTES.--The following exceptions in the use of _sit_ and _set_ are, by reason of usage, regarded as correct: _The sun sets, The moon sets, They sat themselves down to rest_, and _He set out for Chicago_.

_Lie_, meaning to deceive, has for its principal parts, _lie, lied, lied. Lie_, however, with this meaning is seldom confused with _lie_ meaning to recline. The present participle of _lie_ is _lying_.

Compare the following sentences, and note the reasons why the second form in each case is the correct form.

WRONG RIGHT Awake me early to-morrow. Wake me early to-morrow. He was awoke by the noise. He was woke (waked) by the noise. He has fallen a tree. He has felled a tree. I have laid down. I have lain down. I lay the book down (past tense). I laid the book down. The river has raised. The river has risen. He raised in bed. He rose in bed. I set there. I sat there. I sat the chair there. I set the chair there.

EXERCISE 34

_Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the following words:_

Lie, lay (to place), sit, set, sat, sitting, setting, lie (to recline), lie (to deceive), lying, laying, rise, arose, raised, raise, fell (to topple over), fallen, felled, awake, wake, awaked, woke, falling, felling, rising, raising, waking, awaking, lain, laid, lied.

EXERCISE 35

_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:_

1. Let sleeping dogs lay. 2. The sun has sat in the golden west. 3. He has laid in bed all morning. 4. He will sit out on his journey this morning. 5. Let him sit there as long as he wishes. 6. He sat the chair by the table. 7. He awoke everybody at daylight. 8. He laid down to sleep. 9. Let him lie there until he wakes. 10. The shower has lain the dust. 11. The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders. 12. The river has risen four feet. 13. Falling trees is his amusement. 14. To have been awaked then would have been sad. 15. To have waked then would have been sad. 16. Waking at dawn, they renewed the journey. 17. He has set there all day. 18. He lay the papers before the judge. 19. The judge laid the papers aside. 20. Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation.

EXERCISE 36

_In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms of the verbs indicated:_

SIT AND SET

1. I ---- in that seat all the evening. 2. Please ---- here until I return. 3. He was still ----ting there on my return. 4. The sun ---- in the west. 5. He ---- out for home yesterday. 6. ---- down and rest awhile. 7. James ---- down and talked to me. 8. He was engaged in ----ting out flowers. 9. I ---- the bucket on the rock above the bridge. 10. Last evening we ---- at the table for more than an hour. 11. ---- here until I call my mother. 12. ---- the lamp on the table. 13. He has ---- there all day. 14. The chair was ---- by the desk. 15. I usually ---- up until twelve. 16. She ---- the hen on some eggs and she remained ---- there. 17. She told me to ---- there, and I ---- down. 18. By whom has the lamp been ---- there? 19. I ---- my chair by the window and ---- there all the afternoon. 20. How can she ---- still for so long? 21. The moon ---- at twelve.

LAY AND LIE

1. I ---- down this afternoon to rest. 2. I ---- in bed until late every morning. 3. I have frequently ---- in bed until eleven. 4. He always ---- his books on the desk. 5. He just now ---- his books on the desk. 6. He has ---- them there every morning. 7. His books have sometimes ---- there all day. 8. His books have sometimes been ----ing there before I arrive. 9. After he ---- down he remembered that he had left a letter on his desk. 10. Will it not be well for you to ---- down for a while? 11. I ---- on the grass yesterday for an hour or more. 12. I have ---- down and feel much better. 13. Now I ---- me down to sleep. 14. The scene of the play is ---- in rural Pennsylvania. 15. The tramps ---- behind the barn waiting for dawn. 16. I had ---- down to rest before (set or sit) ting out on my journey. 17. The floor was ---- by an expert carpenter. 18. She told me to ---- the matter before the teacher. 19. ---- down, Fido. 20. When we are weary, we ---- down. 21. Who ---- that on the table? 22. He has repeatedly ---- about the matter. 23. He ---- without the slightest hesitation. 24. ----ing down is a good way to rest. 25. ----ing is a sin. 26. He ---- to his father, and his father knew it.

RAISE AND RISE (ARISE)

1. I will ---- and go unto my father. 2. He has ---- early to-day. 3. I do not know why he ---- so early. 4. ---- your hand if you know. 5. Everyone ---- his hand. 6. They have all ---- their hands. 7. All their hands were ---- at once. 8. The price of meat has ----. 9. The bread would not ----. 10. I ---- in order that I might see better. 11. The flag was very carefully ----. 12. He tried to ---- himself from the condition into which he had fallen. 13. The curtain is to ---- at eight. I myself shall see to ----ing it then. 14. The boy ---- and answers. 15. He is ---- rapidly to prominence. 16. Will you please ---- the window? 17. The safe was ---- by means of a rope. 18. It is like trying to ---- one's self by one's boot-straps. 19. ---- and march to the front of the room. 20. The river ---- rapidly.

FELL AND FALL

1. Gladstone, when living, ---- a tree each morning for exercise. 2. To ---- an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of wonderful strength. 3. He was ---- to the earth by a blow from a club. 4. To ---- often is to be expected in learning to skate. 5. ----ing down is a small matter to the young. 6. He has often ---- from the roof of the porch. 7. After he ---- once, he seemed to try to do so again. 8. I did not see him----. 9. Not a shot is fired but a bird ----. 10. Let the tree be ---- across the road. 11. It is hard to avoid ----ing on the ice.

AWAKE AND WAKE

1. Have them ---- me very early. 2. He went upstairs and ---- his brother. 3. His brother did not wish to be ---- so early. 4. This morning I ---- at dawn. 5. It is unpleasant to ---- so early. 6. You say that you have never ---- after nine? 7. Who ---- so early, this morning? 8. He would not say who ---- him. 9. ----ing in the dead of night is unpleasant. 10. ----ing everybody up by their noise is an every night occurrence. 11. The sun ---- me early. 12. The whole country-side seemed to ---- at once. 13. He had himself ---- at six o'clock.

58. MODE. Mode is that form of the verb which indicates the manner in which the action or state is to be regarded. There are several modes in English, but only between the indicative and subjunctive modes is the distinction important. Generally speaking, the INDICATIVE MODE is used when the statement is regarded as a fact or as truth, and the SUBJUNCTIVE MODE is used when the statement expresses uncertainty or implies some degree of doubt.

59. FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. The places in which the subjunctive differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses of the verb _be_, and in the present tense of active verbs. The following outline will show the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive of _be_:

INDICATIVE PRESENT OF BE INDICATIVE PAST OF BE I am we are I was we were thou art you are thou wert or wast you were he (she, it) is they are he (she, it) was they were

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT OF BE SUBJUNCTIVE PAST OF BE If I be If we be If I were If we were If thou be If you be If thou were If you were If he (she, it) be If they be If he (she, it) were If they were

_If_ is used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the subjunctive depends. Other conjunctions may be used, or the verb may precede the subject.

NOTE.--It will be noticed that _thou art_ and _thou wast_, etc., have been used in the second person singular. Strictly speaking, these are the proper forms to be used here, even though _you are_ and _you were_, etc., are customarily used in addressing a single person.

In the subjunctive of _be_, it will be noted that the form _be_ is used throughout the present tense; and the form _were_ throughout the past tense.

In other verbs the subjunctive, instead of having the s-form in the third person singular of the present tense, has the name-form, or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense; as, indicative, _he runs, she sees, it seems, he has;_ subjunctive, _if he run, though she see, lest it seem, if he have_.

NOTE.--An examination of the model conjugations under §77 will give a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive.

60. USE OF INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. The indicative mode would be properly used in the following sentence, when the statement is regarded as true: _If that evidence is true, then he is a criminal_. Similarly: _If he is rich, he ought to be charitable_. Most directly declarative statements are put in the indicative mode.

But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's mind, or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to fact or as untrue, the subjunctive is used. Note the two sentences following, in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: _If those statements be true, then all statements are true, Were I rich, I might be charitable_.

The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions, _if, though, lest, although_, or the verb precedes the subject. But it must be borne in mind that these do not always indicate the subjunctive mode. THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE DEPENDS ON WHETHER THE CONDITION IS REGARDED AS A FACT OR AS CONTRARY TO FACT, CERTAIN OR UNCERTAIN.

It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of use; some of the best writers no longer use its forms. This passing of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged, since its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning.

EXERCISE 37

_Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of BE in the third person singular without an auxiliary, and five which illustrate the correct use of WERE in the third person singular._

EXERCISE 38

_Choose the preferable form in the following sentences, and be able to give a definite reason for your choice. In some of the sentences either form may be used correctly:_

1. He acts as if it _were was_ possible always to escape death. 2. If it _was were_ near enough, I should walk. 3. If I _was were_ only wealthy! 4. If I _were was_ in his place, I should study medicine. 5. If you _are be_ right, then the book is wrong. 6. If he _was were_ I, he would come. 7. Though he _was were_ very economical, he remained poor. 8. Though she _was were_ an angel, I should dislike her. 9. If he _be is_ there, ask him to pay the bill. 10. If he _be is_ there, he makes no sign of his presence. 11. If this _be is_ wrong, then all love of country is wrong. 12. If it _rains rain_, I stay at school. 13. Take care lest you _are be_ deceived by appearances. 14. Would that I _was were_ a bird. 15. If it _snow snows_, I can't come. 16. If your father _comes come_, bring him to dinner. 17. If your father _was were_ here, you would act differently. 18. Though he _were was_ king over all the earth I should despise him. 19. If he _come comes_, he will find me at home. 20. _Was were_ it necessary, I should jump. 21. If to-morrow _be is_ pleasant, we shall go driving. 22. If my mother _was were_ here, she would say I might go. 23. If she _was were_ at home, I did not hear of it. 24. If that _is be_ his motive, he is unworthy. 25. Though this _seem seems_ improbable, it is true. 26. If a speech _is be_ praised by none but literary men, it is bad. 27. If the father _pays pay_ the debt, he will be released. 28. Though Mary _be is_ young, she is a writer of note. 29. Unless he _takes take_ better care of his health, he will die. 30. If he _be is_ honest, he has not shown it. 31. If he _be is_ honest, he will insist on paying me. 32. If he ever _tell tells_ the truth, he conceals the fact.

61. AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. THE VERB SHOULD AGREE WITH ITS SUBJECT IN PERSON AND NUMBER. The most frequent error is the failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. Singular subjects are used with plural verbs, and plural subjects with singular verbs. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension of the true number of the subject.

The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form, and occurs only in the third person, singular, present indicative; as, _He runs, she goes, it moves_. _Is, was_, and _has_ are the singular forms of the auxiliaries. _Am_ is used only with a subject in the first person, and is not a source of confusion. The other auxiliaries have no singular forms.

Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs, and so can cause little confusion.

Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject:

A barrel of clothes WAS shipped (not _were shipped_).

A man and a woman HAVE been here (not _has been here_).

Boxes ARE scarce (not _is scarce_).

When WERE the brothers here (not _when was_)?

62. AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB IN NUMBER. The general rule to be borne in mind in regard to number, is that IT IS THE MEANING AND NOT THE FORM OF THE SUBJECT THAT DETERMINES WHETHER TO USE THE SINGULAR OR THE PLURAL FORM OF THE VERB. This rule also applies to the use of singular or plural pronouns.

Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning; as, _politics, measles, news_, etc.

Many, also, are treated as plurals, though in meaning they are singular; as, _forceps, tongs, trousers_.

Some nouns, singular in form, are, according to the sense in which, they are used, either singular or plural in meaning; as, _committee, family, pair, jury, assembly, means_. The following sentences are all correct: _The assembly has closed its meeting, The assembly are all total abstainers, The whole family is a famous one, The whole family are sick_.

In the use of the adjective pronouns, _some, each_, etc., the noun is often omitted. When this is done, error is often made by using the wrong number of the verb. _Each, either, neither, this, that_, and _one_, when used alone as subjects, require singular verbs. _All, those, these, few, many_, always require plural verbs. _Any, none_, and _some_ may take either singular or plural verbs. In most of these cases, as is true throughout the subject of agreement in number, reason will determine the form to be used.

Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. Examine the following sentences; each is correct: _Three drops of medicine is a dose, Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by the firm, Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection, Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection_.

EXERCISE 39

_In each of the following sentences, by giving a reason, justify the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the noun:_

1. The jury have agreed. 2. The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict. 3. The committee has presented its report, but they have differed in regard to one matter. 4. The whole tribe was destroyed. 5. The tribe were scattered through the different states. 6. The regiment were almost all sick. 7. A variety of persons was there. 8. The society meets each month. 9. The society is divided in its opinion. 10. A number were unable to be present. 11. A great number was present. 12. The number present was great. 13. What means were used to gain his vote? 14. That means of gaining votes is corrupt. 15. Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight. 16. Twenty years of his life was spent in prison. 17. Two hundred pounds was his weight. 18. The family are all at home. 19. The family is large. 20. A pair of gloves has been lost. 21. A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway. 22. The army was defeated.

EXERCISE 40

_Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs, IS, WAS, HAS, HAVE, ARE, WAS, HAVE, GO, GOES, RUN, RUNS, COME, COMES:_

One, none, nobody, everybody, this, that, these, those, former, latter, few, some, many, other, any, all, such, news, pains, measles, gallows, ashes, dregs, goods, pincers, thanks, victuals, vitals, mumps, flock, crowd, fleet, group, choir, class, army, mob, tribe, herd, committee, tons, dollars, bushels, carloads, gallons, days, months.

EXERCISE 41

_Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether IT or THEY should be used in referring to the subject._

63. THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH A COMPOUND SUBJECT:

1. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to mean two distinct things, the verb should be in the plural; as, _French and German literature ARE studied._

2. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound subject, the plural form of the verb should be used; as, _John and Harry ARE still to come._

3. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others, it should agree with that subject to which it applies; as, _The employee, and not the employers, WAS to blame, The employers, and not the employee, WERE to blame, The boy, as well as his sisters, DESERVES praise._

4. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, each in the singular, the verb should be singular; as, _Each book and each paper WAS in its place, No help and no hope IS found for him, Either one or the other IS he, Neither one nor the other IS he._

5. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, some of which are singular and some plural, it should agree with the subject nearest to it; as, _Neither the boy, nor his sisters DESERVE praise, Neither the sisters nor the boy DESERVES praise._

6. When a verb separates its subjects, it should agree with the first; as, _The leader WAS slain and all his men, The men WERE slain, and also the leader._

EXERCISE 42

_Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences:_

1. Hard and soft coal _is are_ used. 2. The boy and the girl _have has_ come. 3. Neither James nor I _are is_ to go. 4. Neither James nor they _are is_ to go. 5. Henry, and not his sister, _is are_ sure to be invited. 6. The children and their father _was were_ on the train. 7. Each man and each woman _was were_ present. 8. Either Tennyson or Wordsworth _was were_ the author of that poem. 9. Either the man or his children _was were_ lost. 10. Either the children or their father _was were_ lost. 11. Bread and milk _are is_ frugal but wholesome fare. 12. The teacher _was were_ cut off by the fire, and also her pupils. 13. The pupils _was were_ cut off by the fire, and also the teacher. 14. Dogs and cats _is are_ useless animals. 15. Neither the daughters nor their mother _is are_ at home. 16. Either the soldier or his officers _is are_ mistaken. 17. The cat and all her kittens _was were_ at the door. 18. Tennyson, not Wordsworth, _were was_ the author. 19. Each of the trustees _has have_ a vote. 20. Our success or our failure _is are_ due solely to ourselves. 21. Neither sincerity nor cordiality _characterize characterizes_ him. 22. Everyone of these chairs _is are_ mine. 23. Each day and each hour _bring brings_ new questions. 24. The car and all its passengers _was were_ blown up. 25. The ambition and activity of the man _has have_ been the _cause causes_ of his success. 26. Old and new hay _is are_ equally good for horses. 27. Matthew or Paul _are is_ responsible for that belief. 28. A man, a woman, and a child _is are_ comprised in the group. 29. The pupils and also the teacher _were was_ embarrassed. 30. The teacher and also the pupils _were was_ embarrassed. 31. Neither he nor I _are is am_ going. 32. Book after book _was were_ taken from the shelves. 33. Either Aunt Mary or her daughters _is are_ coming. 34. Either the daughters or Aunt Mary _is are_ coming. 35. Aunt Mary, but not her daughters, _is are_ coming. 36. The daughters, but not Aunt Mary, _is are_ coming. 37. Both Aunt Mary and her daughter _is are_ coming. 38. Mary, and not her mother, _is are_ coming. 39. No preacher and no woman _is are_ allowed to enter. 40. Every adult man and woman _has have_ a vote. 41. Money, if not culture, _gains gain_ a way. 42. Brain power, as well as money, _talk talks_. 43. Each boy and girl _bring brings_ books.

64. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN REGARD TO AGREEMENT IN NUMBER:

1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by an adjective phrase; as, _The thief, with all his booty, was captured_.

2. Do not use a singular form of the verb after _you_ and _they_. Say: _You were, they are, they were_, etc., not, _you was, they was,_ etc.

3. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. In the sentence, _The SALE of boxes was increased, sale_, not _boxes_, is the subject of the verb.

4. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and the person of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb. Both of the following sentences are correct: _He is the only one of the men THAT IS to be trusted, He is one of those men THAT ARE to be trusted._ It is to be remembered that the singulars and the plurals of the relative pronouns are alike in form; _that, who_, etc., may refer to one or more than one.

5. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with _not_. _Don't_ cannot be used with _he_ or _she_ or _it_, or with any other singular subject in the third person. One should say, _He doesn't_, not _he don't; it doesn't_, not _it don't; man doesn't_, not _man don't_. The proper form of the verb that is being contracted in these instances is _does_, not _do_. _Ain't_ and _hain't_ are always wrong; no such contractions are recognized. Such colloquial contractions as _don't, can't_, etc., should not be used at all in formal composition.

EXERCISE 43

_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:_

1. The ship, with all her crew, were lost. 2. You was there, John, was you not? 3. They was never known to do that before. 4. A barrel of apples were sold. 5. How many were there who was there? 6. This is one of the books that is always read. 7. He don't know his own relatives. 8. I ain't coming to-night. 9. The art gallery, with all its pictures, was destroyed. 10. John, when was you in the city? 11. The book, with all its errors, is valuable. 12. Who they was, I couldn't tell. 13. This is one of the mountains which are called "The Triplets." 14. This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes. 15. The hands of the clock is wrong. 16. The gallery of pictures are splendid. 17. This is one of those four metals that is valuable. 18. This is the one of those four metals that are valuable. 19. That answer, as you will see, hain't right. 20. The whole box of books were shipped.

EXERCISE 44

_In the following sentences correct such as are wrong:_

1. "Cows" are a common noun. 2. Such crises seldom occurs. 3. Fifty dollars were given him as a present. 4. There were four men, each of which were sent by a different bank. 5. At that time the morals of men were very low. 6. Mathematics are my most interesting study. 7. There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower. 8. The jury is delivering its verdict. 9. The "Virginians" is a famous book. 10. Ten minutes were given him in which to answer. 11. Everyone of these farms are mine. 12. Lee, with his whole army, surrender. 13. Farm after farm were passed by the train. 14. He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president. 15. Three hundred miles of wires were cut down. 16. Three fourths of his time are wasted. 17. Three quarts of oats is all that is needed. 18. A variety of sounds charms the ear. 19. A variety of recitations were given. 20. The committee have adjourned. 21. Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived. 22. Take one of the books that is lying on the table. 23. The house is one of those that overlooks the bay. 24. Question after question were propounded to him. 25. He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the school. 26. He is one of those persons who are quick to learn. 27. A black and white horse were in the ring. 28. A black and a white horse was in the ring. 29. The committee disagree on some points. 30. Mary, where was you yesterday? 31. The end and aim of his life are to get money. 32. All the crop were lost. 33. One of them are gone. 34. There comes the children. 35. Were either of these men elected? 36. The alumni of this school is not very loyal. 37. There seem to be few here. 38. There seems to be a few here. 39. Neither of the letters were received. 40. In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm. 41. The Association of Engineers are still flourishing. 42. Neither John nor Henry have come. 43. Either this book or that are wrong. 44. This book and that is wrong. 45. This book, not that, is wrong. 46. Either this book or those students is wrong. 47. Either those students, or this book is wrong. 48. This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in tanning.

65. USE OF SHALL AND WILL. The use of the auxiliaries, _shall_ and _will_, with their past tenses, is a source of very many errors. The following outline will show the correct use of _shall_ and _will_, except in dependent clauses and questions:

To indicate simple futurity or probability:

Use _shall_ with _I_ and _we_; use _will_ with all other subjects.

To indicate promise, determination, threat, or command on the part of the speaker; i. e., action which the speaker means to control;

Use _will_ with _I_ and _we_; use _shall_ with all other subjects.

Examine the following examples of the correct use of _shall_ and _will_:

Statements as to probable future events:

_We shall_ probably be there. I think _you will_ want to be there. _It will_ rain before night.

Statements of determination on the part of the speaker:

_I will_ come in spite of his command. _You shall_ go home. _It shall_ not happen again, I promise you.

66. SHALL AND WILL IN QUESTIONS. In interrogative sentences _shall_ should always be used with the first person. In the second and third persons that auxiliary should be used which is logically expected in the answer.

Examine the agreement in the use of _shall_ and _will_ in the following questions and answers:

QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. _Shall_ I miss the car? You _will_ miss it. _Shall_ you be there? I think I _shall_ (probability). _Will_ he do it? I think he _will_ (assertion). _Shall_ your son obey the teacher? He _shall_ (determination). _Will_ you promise to come? We _will_ come (promise).

67. SHALL AND WILL IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. In dependent clauses which are introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, the auxiliary should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were a principal clause. The sentence, _They assure us that they SHALL come_, is wrong. The direct assurance would be, _We WILL come_. The auxiliary, then, in a principal clause would be _will_. _Will_ should, therefore, be the auxiliary in the dependent construction, and the sentence should read, _They assure us that they WILL come_. Further examples:

I suppose _we shall_ have to pay. He thinks that _you will_ be able to do it. He has decided that _John shall_ replace the book.

In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use _shall_ with all subjects. Examples;

_If he shall_ go to Europe, it will be his tenth trip abroad. _If you shall_ go away, who will run the farm? _If I shall_ die, I shall die as an honest man.

EXERCISE 45

_Justify the correct use of SHALL and WILL in the following sentences:_

1. I will go if you wish. 2. I shall probably go if you wish. 3. I will have it in spite of all you can do. 4. We shall return by way of Dover. 5. We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. 6. I feel that I shall not live long. 7. We think we shall come to-morrow. 8. I promise you, the money shall be raised. 9. You will then go to Philadelphia. 10. You shall never hear from me again. 11. He will surely come to-morrow. 12. How shall you answer him? 13. I think I shall ride. 14. He is sure they will come. 15. He is sure that I will come. 16. Shall you be there? 17. Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination? 18. Will you be there? 19. Will all be there? 20. He says he shall be there. 21. He has promised that he will be there. 22. I fear that he will fail to pass. 23. We think she will soon be well. 24. We are determined that they shall pay. 25. We expect that they will bring their books. 26. I doubt that he will pay. 27. We have promised that we will do it. 28. If he shall ask, shall I refer him to you?

EXERCISE 46

_Fill the blanks in the following sentences with SHALL or WILL:_

1. I think I ---- find the work easy. 2. I ---- probably be refused, but I ---- go anyway. 3. ---- you be busy to-night? Yes, I ---- be in class until ten. 4. I ---- probably fail to pass the examination. 5. If no one assists me, I ---- drown. 6. No. I ---- never sell my library. 7. If I fail I ---- be obliged to take an examination. 8. ---- my men begin work to-day? 9. ---- you stop at Chicago on your way West? No, I don't, think I ----. 10. ---- you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? Yes, I ---- sing to-night. 11. ---- I put more wood on the fire? 12. I ---- be lost; no one ---- help me. 13. It ---- be there when you need it. 14. It is demanded that the pupils ---- be orderly and attentive. 15. I think it ---- rain soon. 16. We ---- be disappointed. 17. ---- we be permitted to go? 18. We ---- do it for you. 19. ---- I go or remain at home? 20. I ---- be very grateful to you if you ---- do this. 21. If you ---- ask her, she ---- go with you. 22. If you ---- stop, I ---- go with you. 23. Where ---- we join you? 24. I think we ---- be there in time. 25. I ---- go to the river for a boat ride. 26. When ---- you be twenty years of age? 27. ---- we ever see you again? 28. Perhaps we ---- return next year. 29. We promise, we ---- return. 30. You ---- probably suffer for it. 31. I ---- not impose on you in that way. 32. ---- I ask for your mail? 33. I hope that we ---- be there before the curtain rises. 34. ---- they probably be there? 35. ---- you please fetch me a paper? 36. ---- we stop for you on our way downtown? 37. When ---- I find you in your office? 38. They ---- never do it if I can help. 39. You ---- do as I say. 40. I ---- never, never, go there again. 41. We ---- decide what to do about that at our next meeting which ---- be in October. 42. ---- it make any difference to you? 43. ---- I go with you? 44. No, you ---- please stay here. 45. He ---- never enter this house again. 46. It is believed that they ---- probably be present. 47. He fears that he ---- die. 48. He requests that you ---- come to-day at seven o'clock. 49. She asks that it ---- be sent at once. 50. It is thought that his death ---- not seriously change things. 51. It is believed that the emperor ---- have to retract. 52. A story is told that ---- gain little credence. 53. I fear that I ---- take cold. 54. She says that I ---- take cold. 55. They say that they ---- do it in spite of anything done to prevent. 56. He is determined that he ---- go away. 57. She is determined that he ---- go to school. 58. They say they ---- probably not go. 59. John thinks he ---- probably live to be past sixty. 60. He tells me that he thinks that he ---- be elected. 61. They say that they ---- meet you. 62. They assure us that we ---- find good stores in Berlin. 63. He says he fears he ---- miss his train. 64. Wright says his father ---- become famous. 65. He writes that he ---- be here to-day. 66. Do you say that you ---- be present? 67. The book says that ---- be wrong. 68. Does she say that she ---- come? 69. I told you that I ---- not come. 70. I tell you that she ---- not come. 71. He says that he ---- go as a matter of duty. 72. John says that ---- not happen anyway. 73. Does he say that he ---- surely come? 74. Does John write what he ---- promise to do in the matter? 75. ---- you be sure to be there?

EXERCISE 47

_Write five sentences in which SHALL is used in an independent clause, and five in which SHALL is used in a dependent clause._

_Write five sentences in which WILL is used in an independent clause, and five in which WILL is used in a dependent clause._

_Write five interrogative sentences in which SHALL is used and five in which WILL is used._

68. SHOULD AND WOULD. _Should_ and _would_ are the past tenses of _shall_ and _will_, and have corresponding uses. _Should_ is used with _I_ and _we_, and _would_ with other subjects, to express mere futurity or probability. _Would_ is used with _I_ and _we_, and _should_ with other subjects, to express conditional promise or determination on the part of the speaker. Examples:

Futurity:

I _should_ be sorry to lose this book. If we _should_ be afraid of the storm, we _should_ be foolish. It was expected that they _would_ be here.

Volition or determination:

If it _should_ occur, we _would_ not come. It was promised that it _should_ not occur again. He decided that it _should_ be done.

_Should_ is sometimes used in the sense of _ought_, to imply duty; as, _He should have gone to her aid_.

_Would_ is often used to indicate habitual action; as, _This would often occur when he was preaching_.

EXERCISE 48

_Justify the correct use of SHOULD and WOULD in the following sentences:_

1. I feared that they would not come. 2. He should know his duty better than that. 3. I should be displeased if he would act that way. 4. We should be ruined if we did that. 5. You should have seen his face. 6. We would often take that road. 7. He said that he would come at once. 8. If that should happen, we should not come. 9. If you were I, what should you do? 10. I should see the president of the class. 11. We should have been at the meeting. 12. He said that we should have been at the meeting. 13. He promised that he would be at the meeting. 14. If I should say so, he would dislike me. 15. Should he come, I would go with him. 16. They would usually stop at the new hotel. 17. What would they do in the city? 18. She asked if she should write the letter. 19. She said they would write the letter. 20. She agreed that it would be right. 21. She assured us that she would attend to it.

EXERCISE 49

_Fill in the blanks with SHOULD or WOULD in the following sentences:_

1. I fear I ---- be drowned if I ---- go swimming. 2. I ---- be much pleased to meet him. 3. It was feared that they ---- not accept. 4. If it ---- storm, we ---- not start. 5. She ---- often come to class with no books. 6. I believed that he ---- come late. 7. He ---- never have been invited. 8. If that had become known, we ---- surely have been ruined. 9. To think that he ---- do such a thing! 10. I ---- like to see the game. 11. You ---- not enjoy it. 12. ---- you like to see the game? 13. ---- I bring my opera glasses? 14. Mary ---- never have known it. 15. He ---- have easily deceived her. 16. They were anxious that we ---- not miss the train. 17. If we ---- come late, ---- it make any difference? 18. If they had proposed it, we ---- have voted it down. 19. On what date ---- that come? 20. I suppose I ---- have done it; but, it ---- have inconvenienced me. 21. Had Lee known that, he ---- never have surrendered. 22. I ---- never have believed she ---- do such a thing. 23. We ---- never have come. 24. ---- you think him capable of such a trick? 25. I knew I ---- not be here on time. 26. ---- they dare to attempt opposition? 27. How ---- you go about it? 28. Lincoln, under those circumstances, ---- probable not have been elected. 29. It ---- have changed our whole history. 30. He said that it ---- have changed our whole history. 31. He said he ---- come. 32. She thinks they ---- not do it. 33. We believe that we ---- like to go at once. 34. They say it ---- be done now. 35. I think I ---- like to go.

EXERCISE 50

_Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used independently, and five in which SHOULD is used dependently._

_Write five sentences in which WOULD is used independently, and five in which WOULD is used dependently._

_Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used in questions, and five in which WOULD is used in questions._

69. USE OF MAY AND MIGHT, CAN AND COULD. _May_, with its past tense, _might_, is properly used to denote permission. _Can_, with its past tense, _could_, refers to the ability or possibility to do a thing. These two words are often confused.

EXERCISE 51

_Fill the blanks in the following sentences:_

1. ---- I go home? 2. ---- we get tickets at that store? 3. ---- the mountain be climbed? 4. ---- we come into your office? 5. You ---- stay as long as you wish. 6. ---- you finish the work in an hour? 7. How ---- you say such a thing? 8. Several people ---- use the same book. 9. We ---- afford to delay a while. 10. ---- John go with me? 11. You ---- often hear the noise. 12. What ---- not be done in a week? 13. That ---- be true, but it ---- not be relied on. 14. What ---- he do to prevent it? 15. When ---- we hand in the work?

70. PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. The past participle has already been mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb. Generally, the PARTICIPLES are those forms of the verb that ARE USED ADJECTIVELY; as, _seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen, seen, playing, having played_, etc. In the following sentences note that the verb form in each case modifies a substantive: _He, HAVING BEEN INVITED TO DINE, came early, John, BEING SICK, could not come_. The verb form in all these cases is called a participle, and must be used in connection with either a nominative or objective case of a noun or pronoun.

The GERUND is the same as the participle in its forms, but differs in that, while the participle is always used adjectively, the GERUND IS ALWAYS USED SUBSTANTIVELY; as, _I told OF HIS WINNING the race, AFTER HIS ASSERTING it, I believe the statement_.

71. MISUSES OF PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS.

1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the sentence. Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known as the "dangling participle." It is wrong to say, _The dish was broken, RESULTING from its fall_, because _resulting_ does not stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. But it would be right to say, _The dish was broken as a result of its fall_. Examine, also, the following examples:

Wrong: I spent a week in Virginia, _followed_ by a week at Atlantic City.

Right: I spent a week in Virginia, _following_ it by a week at Atlantic City.

Right: I spent a week in Virginia, _and then_ a week at Atlantic City.

2. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence or clause. Compare the following:

Wrong: Having been sick, it was decided to remain at home.

Right: Having been sick, I decided to remain at home.

3. A participle preceded by _thus_ should not be used unless it modifies the subject of the preceding verb. Compare the following:

Wrong: He had to rewrite several pages, _thus causing_ him a great deal of trouble.

Right: He had to rewrite several pages, _and was thus caused_ a great deal of trouble.

Right: He had to rewrite several pages, _thus experiencing_ a great deal of trouble.

4. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition, and frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. Owing to confusion between the gerund and the participle, and to the failure to realize that the gerund can only be used substantively, the objective case of a modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund. A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive case. Say, _I heard OF JOHN'S COMING_, not, _I heard OF JOHN COMING_.

5. When a gerund and a preposition are used, the phrase should be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it modifies, and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless it logically belongs to the subject of that sentence. Exception: When the gerund phrase denotes a general action, it may be used without grammatical connection to the sentence; as, _In traveling, good drinking water is essential_. Compare the following wrong and right forms:

Wrong: _After seeing his mistake_, a new start was made.

Right: _After seeing his mistake_, he made a new start.

Wrong: _By writing rapidly, the work_ can be finished.

Right: _By writing rapidly, you_ can finish the work.

Wrong: _In copying the exercise_, a mistake was made.

Right: _In copying the exercise, I_ made a mistake.

EXERCISE 52

_In the following sentences, choose the proper form of the substantive from those italicized:_

1. He spoke of _John John's_ coming down. 2. The idea of _his him_ singing is absurd. 3. Do you remember _me my_ speaking about it? 4. What is the use of _you your_ reading that? 5. _He his him_ being arrested was a sufficient disgrace. 6. _He him his_ being now of age, sold the farm. 7. _He him his_ selling it was very unexpected. 8. You should have heard _him his_ telling the story. 9. You should have heard _his him_ telling of the story. 10. To think of _them they their_ having been seen there! 11. What is the object of _Mary Mary's_ studying French? 12. _It its_ being John was a great surprise. 13. What is the use of _them they their_ talking so much? 14. _John John's_ going to school takes all his evenings. 15. The beauty of _James James's_ writing got him the position. 16. He had heard about _me my_ coming to-day. 17. _John John's_ coming was a surprise.

EXERCISE 53

_Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following sentences, correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety. See §107 for rule as to punctuation:_

1. Having assented to your plan, you try to hold me responsible. 2. He asked him to make the plans, owing to the need of an experienced architect. 3. It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his health. 4. On hearing that, a new plan was made. 5. Moving slowly past our window, we saw a great load of lumber. 6. Intending to go to the theater, the whole afternoon was spent in town. 7. He was taken into the firm, thus gaining an increased income. 8. Not having the lesson prepared, he told John to stay after class. 9. No letter was written for more than a week, causing considerable anxiety. 10. Expecting us to come, we disappointed him. 11. After telling me the story, I left him. 12. By reading aloud to the class, they do not gain much. 13. He had to wait several hours for the train, thus causing him to lose a great deal of valuable time. 14. After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome. 15. We listened attentively to his lecture, thus showing our interest.

72. INFINITIVES. The Infinitives are formed by the word _to_ and some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. For _see_ and _play_ as model verbs, the infinitives are as follows:

PRESENT ACTIVE PRESENT PASSIVE to see to be seen to play to be played

PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE to have seen to have been seen to have played to have been played

The word _to_ is frequently omitted. In general, other verbs follow the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above.

It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses, since the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors.

73. SEQUENCE OF INFINITIVE TENSES. The wrong tense of the infinitive is frequently used. The following rules should be observed:

1. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb, the PRESENT INFINITIVE should be used.

2. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb, the PERFECT INFINITIVE should be used.

Examine the following examples:

Wrong: _I should have liked to have gone._

Right: _I should have liked to go_ (same or later time).

Right: _I should like to have gone_ (earlier time).

Wrong: _It was bad to have been discovered._

Right: _It is bad to have been discovered_ (earlier time).

Right: _It was bad to be discovered_ (same or later time).

Right: _She did not believe her son to have committed the crime_ (earlier time).

Right: _When he died, he believed himself to have been defeated for the office_ (earlier time.)

EXERCISE 54

_In the following sentences choose the proper form from those italicized:_

1. I was sorry _to have heard to hear_ of John's death. 2. Should you have been willing _to go to have gone_ with us? 3. The game was intended _to be played to have been played_ yesterday. 4. I intended _to write to have written_ long ago. 5. He wished _to have met to meet_ you. 6. I should have liked _to meet to have met_ you. 7. Mary was eager _to have gone to go_. 8. Nero was seen _to have fiddled to fiddle_ while Rome burned. 9. Nero is said _to have fiddled to fiddle_ while Rome burned. 10. This was _to be done to have been done_ yesterday. 11. They agreed _to finish to have finished_ it yesterday. 12. He was willing _to sing to have sung_ alone. 13. He expected _to have spoken to speak_ here to-morrow. 14. The Civil War is said _to cause to have caused_ more loss of life than any other war. 15. Blackstone is said _to have failed to fail_ at the practice of law. 16. It would have been hard _to accomplish to have accomplished_ that result. 17. He was foolish enough _to have spoiled to spoil_ six negatives. 18. I wanted _to have attended to attend_ the convention. 19. It would be terrible _to be lost to have been lost_ in the forest. 20. We were asked _to have waited to wait_. 21. I am eager _to have seen to see it_. 22. I am pleased _to meet to have met_ you.

74. SPLIT INFINITIVES. In the sentence, care should be taken to avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial modifier between the parts of the infinitive. This error is called the "split infinitive." Compare the following:

Bad: He seemed _to easily learn_. Good: He seemed _to learn easily_.

Bad: He is said _to have rapidly run_ along the street. Good: He is said _to have run rapidly_ along the street.

EXERCISE 55

_Correct the following split infinitives:_

1. She is known to have hurriedly read the note. 2. Mary tried to quickly call help. 3. He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph. 4. John attempted to rudely break into the conversation. 5. The plan was to secretly destroy the documents. 6. His policy was to never offend. 7. He wished to in this way gain friends. 8. He proposed to greatly decrease his son's allowance.

75. AGREEMENT OF VERB IN CLAUSES. In a compound predicate, the parts of the predicate should agree in tense; PAST TENSE SHOULD FOLLOW PAST TENSE, AND PERFECT TENSE FOLLOW PERFECT TENSE. Examine the following:

Wrong: He _has tried_ to do, and really _did_ everything possible to stop his son.

Right: He _has tried_ to do, and really _has done_ everything possible to stop his son.

Right: He _tried_ to do, and really _did_ everything possible to stop his son.

Wrong: I _hoped_ and _have worked_ to gain this recognition.

Right: I _hoped_ and _worked_ to gain this recognition.

Right: I _have hoped_ and _have worked_ to gain this recognition.

EXERCISE 56

_Correct the following sentences:_

1. I went last week and have gone again this week. 2. I have heard of his being here, but not saw him. 3. I saw John, but I have not seen Henry. 4. He desired to see John, but has not wished to see Henry. 5. John was sent for, but has not yet arrived. 6. I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that, but have not succeeded. 7. I have never seen its superior, and, in fact, never saw its equal. 8. She has succeeded in getting his promise, but did not succeed in getting his money. 9. I hoped and have prayed for your coming. 10. I have believed and usually taught that theory. 11. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. 12. No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the world as I. 13. He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy. 14. We have needed you and did our best to find you.

76. OMISSION OF THE VERB OR PARTS OF THE VERB. The verb or some of its parts are often omitted. This omission sometimes makes the sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning.

_I like him better than John_. This sentence may have the meaning shown in either of its following corrected forms: _I like him better than John DOES_, or _I like him better than I LIKE John_.

As a matter of good usage, the verb or any other part of speech should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound.

Bad: _He was told to go where he ought not_. Good: _He was told to go where he ought not to go_. Good: _He was told to go where he should not go_.

EXERCISE 57

_Correct the following sentences:_

1. I admire Mary more than John. 2. I think she is older than John. 3. He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried. 4. I asked him to do what I should not have. 5. I did what I ought not. 6. We wish him better luck than Mary. 7. We want to see him more than Henry. 8. I should hate him worse than you. 9. He wanted me to do what I didn't care to. 10. You may, as you please, do it or not. 11. She may go if she wishes or not. 12. We think of you oftener than mother.

77. MODEL CONJUGATIONS OF THE VERBS TO BE AND TO SEE.

CONJUGATION OF TO BE

PRINCIPAL PARTS: AM, WAS, BEEN

INDICATIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE

_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. I _am_ We _are_ 2. [*]Thou _art_ (you _are_) You _are_ 3. He _is_ They _are_

[Footnote *: The forms, _thou art, thou wast, thou hast_, etc., are the proper forms in the second person singular, but customarily the forms of the second person plural, _you are, you were, you have_, etc., are used also in the second person singular. These distinct second person singular forms will be used throughout the model conjugations.]

PAST TENSE

1. I _was_ We _were_ 2. Thou _wast_ or _wert_ You _were_ 3. He _was_ They _were_

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

(_Have_ with the past participle, _been_.)

1. I _have been_ We _have been_ 2. Thou _hast been_ You _have been_ 3. He _has been_ They _have been_

PAST PERFECT TENSE

(_Had_ with the past participle, _been_.)

1. I _had been_ We _had been_ 2. Thou _hadst been_ You _had been_ 3. He _had been_ They _had been_

FUTURE TENSE

(_Shall_ or _will_ with the present infinitive, _be_.[*])

_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. I _shall be_ We _shall be_ 2. Thou _shalt be_ You _shall be_ 3. He _shall be_ They _shall be_

[Footnote *: To determine when to use _shall_ and when to use _will_ in the future and future perfect tenses, see §§ 65, 66, and 67. In these model conjugations the forms of _shall_ are given with the future and the forms of _will_ with the future perfect.]

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

(_Shall_ or _will_ with the perfect infinitive, _have been_.[*])

1. I _will have been_ We _will have been_ 2. Thou _wilt have been_ You _will have been_ 3. He _will have been_ They _will have been_

[Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense.]

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

(Generally follows _if, though, lest, although_, etc. See §59.)

PRESENT TENSE

1. (If) I _be_ (If) we _be_ 2. (If) thou _be_ (If) you _be_ 3. (If) he _be_ (If) they _be_

PAST TENSE

1. (If) I _were_ (If) we _were_ 2. (If) thou _were_ (If) you _were_ 3. (If) he _were_ (If) they _were_

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

(_Have_, unchanged, with the past participle, _been_.)

1. (If) I _have been_ (If) we _have been_ 2. (If) thou _have been_ (If) you _have been_ 3. (If) he _have been_ (If) they _have been_

PAST PERFECT TENSE

(_Had_, unchanged, with the past participle, _been_.)

_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. (If) I _had been_ (If) we _had been_ 2. (If) thou _had been_ (If) you _had been_ 3. (If) he _had been_ (If) they _had been_

FUTURE TENSE

(_Shall_ or _will_, unchanged, with present infinitive _be_.[*])

[Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative.]

1. (If) I _shall be_ (If) we _shall be_ 2. (If) thou _shall be_ (If) you _shall be_ 3. (If) he _shall be_ (If) they _shall be_

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

(_Shall_ or _will_, unchanged, with the perfect infinitive, _have been_.*)

1. (If) I _shall have been_ (If) we _shall have been_ 2. (If) thou _shall have been_ (If) you _shall have been_ 3. (If) he _shall have been_ (If) they _shall have been_

POTENTIAL MODE[*]

[Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many authorities on grammar, and the potential forms are regarded as of the indicative mode. It has, however, been thought best to use it in these model conjugations.

As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode see §§ 68 and 69. The conjugation with _must_ (or _ought to_) is sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE MODE. The conjugation with _should_ or _would_ is sometimes called the CONDITIONAL MODE.]

PRESENT TENSE

(_May, can_, or _must_, with the present infinitive, _be_.)

1. I _may, can_, or _must be_ We _may, can_, or _must be_ 2. Thou _mayst, canst_, or _must be_ You _may, can_, or _must be_ 3. He _may, can_, or _must be_ They _may, can_, or _must be_

PAST TENSE

(_Might, could, would_, or _should_, with the present infinitive, _be_.)

_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. I _might, could, would_, or We _might, could, would_, or _should be_ _should be_ 2. Thou _mightst, couldst,_ You _might, could, would,_ or _wouldst,_ or _shouldst be_ _should be_ 3. He _might, could, would,_ They _might, could, would,_ or or _should be_ _should be_

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

(_May, can_, or _must_, with the perfect infinitive, _have been_. For forms substitute _have been_ for _be_ in the present potential.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE

(_Might, could, would_, or _should_, with the perfect infinitive _have been_. For forms substitute _have been_ for _be_ in the past potential.)

IMPERATIVE MODE[*]

[Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural.]

_Be_

INFINITIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE _To be To have been_

PARTICIPLES

PRESENT TENSE PERFECT TENSE _Being Having been_

GERUNDS

(Same as participles)

CONJUGATION OF TO SEE

PRINCIPAL PARTS: SEE, SAW, SEEN

INDICATIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. I _see_ We _see_ 2. Thou _seest_ You _see_ 3. He _sees_ They _see_

_Emphatic_

1. I _do see_ We _do see_ 2. Thou _dost see_ You _do see_ 3. He _does see_ They _do see_

_Progressive_

1. I _am seeing_ We _are seeing_ 2. Thou _art seeing_ You _are seeing_ 3. He _is seeing_ They _are seeing_

PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

_Simple_

1. I _am seen_ We _are seen_ 2. Thou _art seen_ You _are seen_ 3. He _is seen_ They _are seen_

_Progressive_

1. I _am being seen_ We _are being seen_ 2. Thou _art being seen_ You _are being seen_ 3. He _is being seen_ They _are being seen_

PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

1. I _saw_ We _saw_ 2. Thou _sawest_ You _saw_ 3. He _saw_ They _saw_

_Emphatic_

_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. I _did see_ We _did see_ 2. Thou _didst see_ You _did see_ 3. He _did see_ They _did see_

_Progressive_

1. I _was seeing_ We _were seeing_ 2. Thou _wast_ or _wert seeing_ You _were seeing_ 3. He _was seeing_ They _were seeing_

PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

_Simple_

1. I _was seen_ We _were seen_ 2. Thou _wast_ or _wert seen_ You _were seen_ 3. He _was seen_ They _were seen_

_Progressive_

1. I _was being seen_ We _were being seen_ 2. Thou _wert_ or _wast being seen_ You _were being seen_ 3. He _was being seen_ They _were being seen_

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative of _to be_.)

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative of _to be_.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative of _to be_.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative of _to be_.)

FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.)

FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.)

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _have seen_ for _have been_ in the future perfect indicative of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _have been_ in the future perfect indicative of _to be_.)

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _have been seen_ for _have been_ in the future perfect indicative of _to be_.)

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. (If) I _see_ (If) we _see_ 2. (If) thou _see_ (If) you _see_ 3. (If) he _see_ (If) they _see_

_Emphatic_

_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. (If) I _do see_ (If) we _do see_ 2. (If) thou _do see_ (If) you _do see_ 3. (If) he _do see_ (If) they _do see_

_Progressive_

1. (If) I _be seeing_ (If) we _be seeing_ 2. (If) thou _be seeing_ (If) you _be seeing_ 3. (If) he _be seeing_ (If) they _be seeing_

PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

1. (If) I _be seen_ (If) we _be seen_ 2. (If) thou _be seen_ (If) you _be seen_ 3. (If) he _be seen_ (If) they _be seen_

PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

1. (If) I _saw_ (If) we _saw_ 2. (If) thou _saw_ (If) you _saw_ 3. (If) he _saw_ (If) they _saw_

_Emphatic_

1. (If) I _did see_ (If) we _did see_ 2. (If) thou _did see_ (If) you _did see_ 3. (If) he _did see_ (If) they _did see_

_Progressive_

1. (If) I _were seeing_ (If) we _were seeing_ 2. (If) thou _were seeing_ (If) you _were seeing_ 3. (If) he _were seeing_ (If) they _were seeing_

PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

1. (If) I _were seen_ (If) we _were seen_ 2. (If) thou _were seen_ (If) you _were seen_ 3. (If) he _were seen_ (If) they _were seen_

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive of _to be_.)

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive of _to be_.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive of _to be_.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive of _to be_.)

FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to be_.)

FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to be_.)

FUTURE PERFECT--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the future perfect subjunctive of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the future perfect subjunctive of _to be_.)

FUTURE PERFECT--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _been seen_ for the future perfect subjunctive of _to be_.)

POTENTIAL MODE

PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.)

PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.)

PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.)

PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.)

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _have seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.)

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _have been seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

(Substitute _have seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.)

_Progressive_

(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute _have been seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.)

IMPERATIVE MODE

ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

_see_.

_Emphatic_

_do see_.

_Progressive_

_be seeing_.

PASSIVE VOICE

_be seen_

INFINITIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

_to see._

_Progressive_

_to be seeing._

PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

_Simple_

_to be seen_

PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

_to have seen._

_Progressive_

_to have been seeing._

PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

_Simple_

_to have been seen._

PARTICIPLES

PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_seeing_

PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

_being seen_

PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE[*]

_seen_

[Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.]

PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_Simple_

_having seen_

_Progressive_

_having been seeing_

PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

_having been seen_

GERUNDS

PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_seeing_

PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

_being seen_

PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

_having seen_

PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

_having been seen_