CHAPTER XX

WHY NOT NATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPH LABORATORIES?

Considering the position which the motion-picture has attained in our social and industrial life, the establishment of national cinematograph laboratories appears not only to be opportune, but necessary. At the present moment, if one conceives an idea for the solving of some abstruse problem by means of animated photography, one is handicapped by the lack of opportunity and facilities for carrying out the work. Either the apparatus required must be made specially, or purchased, in which case heavy expenditure may be incurred, or, one must go to Paris and make use of the Marey Institute, either by becoming a member of it or by serving as the representative of a contributory society. There, one is able to pursue the line of study quietly, easily, and economically, and, even if the ultimate results are disappointing, or the cherished theories prove to be untenable, certain benefits are sure to accrue from the experiments. The time is not wasted.

The Marey Institute is unique and wonderful. Its operations are world-wide. Its founder, Dr. E. J. Marey, was a prodigious worker who pursued his scientific investigations without any idea of personal gain. When first he entered the arena of science he began his experiments in a large room upon the fifth floor of a house in the Rue de l'ancienne Comédie, Paris, which formerly belonged to the Comédie Française. Here he fitted up as good a laboratory as he could afford, dividing the spacious apartment, by wooden partitions, into working and living rooms. His studies soon aroused widespread attention, and their results were subsequently embodied in his classical work, "The Graphic Method." But some ten years before this volume appeared his investigations had received recognition. In 1867 the Minister of Public Instruction offered him the use of a laboratory at the College of France, so as to be able to carry out his researches to better advantage.

During this period he invented numerous instruments--the sphymograph, cardiograph, pneumograph, thermograph, and odograph--with which he made invaluable contributions to scientific knowledge. It was Konig's work which attracted Marey to animated photography, as a handmaid of science, the outcome being his greatest discovery, which he named chronophotography. Marey was much impressed by Jannsen's astronomical revolver with which, in 1873, a series of photographs of the transit of Venus were taken in 70 seconds. This caused him to build a photographic gun, with which gulls in flight were secured. The work of Muybridge, the English investigator residing in San Francisco, aroused his enthusiasm to the highest pitch, and enabled him to perfect his system of taking a series of successive photographs upon a single glass plate. Finally, in 1893, he produced his first moving-picture camera working with celluloid films.

But some twenty years before this last achievement he had conceived the idea for an International Institution where experiments of this character, in connection with motion photography, might be carried out to the advantage of the sciences. He realised that the elucidation of physiological phenomena was quite beyond the capacity of a single individual. He outlined his scheme at the Fourth Physiological Congress, held at Cambridge (England) in the early seventies, while Monsieur H. Kronecker, of Switzerland, a great admirer of Marey's work, who succeeded to the presidential chair of the Institution after the founder's death, urged a similar plea at an exhibition of scientific apparatus held in London in 1876.

Marey's broad-mindedness met with its reward. With the assistance of private friends and contemporary scientific societies throughout the world he obtained adequate funds for the establishment of the Institution, the necessity for which he had advanced so vigorously. The City of Paris gave valuable help by granting the use of a tract of land attached to its physiological station, and here Marey established a commodious building with spacious workrooms, a library, lecture hall, and other conveniences, for the profitable prosecution of cinematographic research.

Since the foundation of the "French Cradle of Cinematography," innumerable and valuable contributions to scientific knowledge have been made by investigators of all nationalities, who have gone to Paris to take advantage of the facilities offered. Many extraordinary films dealing with the various branches of science have been prepared. Many of the most prominent scientists of all nations, France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Roumania, Switzerland, the United States of America, are numbered among its members.

It may be said truthfully that the Marey Institute has anticipated all the great developments that have been made during recent years concerning the instructional or informative side of film production. Unfortunately the original investigations were made so long ago, before the possibilities of animated photography were appreciated, that they have been forgotten by, or are unknown to, the present generation. Many an inventor, enthusiastic about a development which he has perfected in the art, has received a rude shock when his work became public and he learned that he had been forestalled years before at the Marey Institute.

Nearly all of the so-called scientific films, which arouse widespread interest to-day, were prepared originally at the Marey Institute. The combination of the cinematograph with the microscope, the X-rays, and other apparatus, the recording of the growth of plants and animals, the photographing of rapid movements all these were demonstrated at this establishment a generation ago.

Surely what has been possible at a French establishment is not beyond the resources of other countries? When one recalls the valuable assistance given to science by the French Institute, there should be no hesitation in other countries to emulate the idea, and to establish national institutions for a similar purpose. Animated photography is still in its infancy. Its educational and scientific possibilities are scarcely yet realised. There were many years during which no one realised the full advantages of ordinary photography in the provinces of investigation and experiment, and animated photography is passing through a similar phase. This is largely because of the showman, who is enterprising, and has captured the fort for himself. Probably no other industry has been responsible for the creation of so many millionaires in so short a period, yet there is no industry which can render so great a service to science.

It should not be difficult to establish national institutions, on Marey's lines, in every country which has great industrial and commercial interests at stake. So far as Great Britain is concerned it might be attached to the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington. This establishment has an extensive array of scientific apparatus of all descriptions capable of being utilised in conjunction with the moving-picture camera, so that the additional outlay would not be excessive. Not only would it be possible to utilise the invention in connection with existing experiments, but independent and original investigation could be undertaken. There are many points of science which can be determined only by moving-pictures. Although Marey covered the ground very completely during his lifetime, as a perusal of "Movement" will show, many new spheres of application have appeared since his time. It is quite possible that if some of his investigations were repeated in the light of later knowledge, the new results would be quite as striking as the old.

In Germany the cinematographic laboratory might be attached to the world-famed testing laboratory at Charlottenburg. At present, although the recording instruments in use are of a most modern and perfect description, there are innumerable instances where improvement might be effected by photographic methods. The German military authorities were not slow to appreciate the value of Professor Cranz's system of photographing projectiles in flight. Directly the initial experiments were concluded the work was taken up by the War Department. Although certain particulars of the apparatus employed and its method of operation have been published, the essential details have been kept secret. It is admitted that the method evolved by Cranz is imperfect in certain features, but the authorities have the germ of a useful invention, and are now developing it independently. In Italy also the value of the cinematograph is being appreciated in a certain direction. The Minister of Marine has established a special department of photography and cinematography in Rome, after personal investigation of the utility of the invention during the naval manoeuvres.

The United States of America has been no more progressive than Great Britain in giving recognition to animated photography, but there are indications that this lethargic attitude is to be abandoned. Certain influential interests have suggested the establishment of a cinematographic bureau of standards, emphasising the usefulness of the invention for supplying measurements of time and work. Apart from this movement other independent enthusiasts have recommended the formation of moving-picture laboratories in connection with the various training institutions, so that students might be trained on the correct lines. Doubtless the perfection of continuous-record cinematography, and of cameras capable of working at the highest speeds, will stimulate the movement, for they provide a method of getting information which even the cinematograph has not hitherto been able to give.

There are a thousand problems incidental to industry and commerce which now defy solution, but could be solved by animated photography. Aviation, which at present is occupying the attention of every nation, is a case in point. The mechanical part of the science has been investigated minutely but little progress has been made in studying the effect of the air upon the planes, so as to discover the best forms of cutting edge. Present endeavour is content to work upon the results obtained by Marey with his chronophotographic apparatus some twenty years ago. No attempt has been made to ascertain whether it is possible to improve upon his work, or to determine whether the data he gathered is in need of modification. Another field of investigation is in regard to the testing of metals, woods, and other materials, to discover their behaviour under varying degrees of strain.

A national cinematographic laboratory need not be expensive either to establish nor to maintain. The Marey Institute might be taken as a model. After the death of Marey, in 1905, the means of carrying on the institution were completely reorganised. The work it was accomplishing was recognised as being too valuable to be allowed to cease. The French Government took up the question and decided to grant an annual subvention of £960 ($4,800). The German, Swiss, Russian, and other Governments, as well as various scientific institutions of all nations, also decided to subscribe regularly to its support. In this way, with the addition of some private subscriptions, about £1,500 ($7,500) is contributed annually. Other contributions are made in kind, such as the film, all of which is given by the firm of Lumière.

Considering the work accomplished by the Marey Institute it is maintained very economically. The annual expenses average about £1,200 or $6,000. The paid staff comprises the assistant sub-director and an assistant, two highly skilled mechanics, and one or two minor officials, the important posts being filled honorarily.

Private investigators are encouraged to use the Institute and its equipment. The scientific institutions of the different countries are given certain facilities in return for a small payment. Thus an annual subscription of £40 ($200) entitles the representative of an institution to the widest use of the laboratory. He is not only given free and unrestricted use of all the apparatus, but is provided with a bedroom, so that his expenses are reduced to disbursements upon meals and other personal requirements. Everything requisite for his study, as well as accessories, such as light, film, developers, etc., are provided free of charge.

The laboratory is well provided with all sorts of appliances. There are cameras of various designs adapted to special classes of work, dark rooms for developing, rooms for experiments, a workshop with skilled mechanics, a library stocked with literature bearing upon cinematography and its relation to the sciences, and a large and lofty hall furnished with a projector and screen. As the Institute stands in its own grounds of over 3,000 square yards, there are ample facilities for out-door investigations.

The experimenter at this Institution has advantages placed at his disposal which will not be found elsewhere in any other part of the world. The majority of the appliances have been designed by the staff mechanics, and in their manufacture extreme ingenuity has been displayed. Much of the apparatus might possibly provide an income in the form of royalties if it were commercially exploited. But it is a rule of the Institute that no instrument may be patented. Its work is for the benefit of all.

Undoubtedly the near future will see the foundation of national cinematographic laboratories in some form or other. The value of animated photography is not yet appreciated. Directly the sciences realise its significance, and see that it constitutes an indispensable aid to investigation and research, the invention will be given the recognition it deserves. Then it will be turned into more useful channels than at present. Individual investigation will be encouraged, and discoveries more wonderful than any of which we know will be made.

INDEX

Aeroscope, the, hand camera, 55-57

Aldrich, Mr. J. G., and the use of micro-motion, 176

Alpha camera, 22-23

Aurora Borealis, attempt to film the, 186

Automatic cameras. _See under_ Cameras.

Bruce, Colonel, study of sleeping sickness, 195

Bull, M. Lucien, optical illusions explained, 96-107; experiments with a bee, 119-120; continuous-record camera, 137; study of ballistics, 190

Cameras, automatic, 54-59; cost of, 7-10, 22-24; directions for use, 35-50; hand camera, 50-53; high speed cameras, 109, 112-116, 118-120; mechanism explained, 25-34

Cardiograph, the, 249

Carvallo, M. M. J., 147-148; apparatus described and illustrated, 149-152; scientific experiments, 154-156

Chronophotography, 136-146; discovery of, 249; the chronoscope, 111-112

Chronoscope, the, 111-112

Cinematography-- (_a_) for the amateur, attractions and opportunities, 1-12, 21-34, 92-93, 125, 133-134, 212-213, 220-221; picture plays, 225-237 (_b_) scientific value of. _See_ Scientific investigation. (_c_) Educational value. _See_ Educational films. (_d_) in conjunction with the X-rays. _See_ Radio-cinematography. (_e_) in conjunction with the microscope. _See_ Micro-cinematography.

Claw, the, 26-27; movement described, 29-30; single claw, 31

Comandon, Dr. Jean, 147-148; system described and illustrated 157-160; investigations with ultra-microscope described and illustrated, 168-172, 195

Continuous records. _See_ Records, continuous.

Cooke lens, 23

Cranz, Dr., of Berlin, military academy, 109; apparatus invented by, 190-193, 254

Crookes' tube, 153

Dallmeyer lens, 23

Dastre, Dr., of the Sorbonne, 172

Demeny, Georges, 143; investigation with the continuous record, 144-145

Developing. _See under_ Film.

Driving gear, 31-32

Drum, the, 76

Eastman Company, stock, 63, 78; developing solution, 70

Educational films, 209-223

Einthoven, Professor (Dutch scientist), 137; chronophotography, 142

Equilibrator of hand camera, 56

Experiments and investigations: study of bacteria, 168-172; filming of a bee, 219; with continuous records, 140-145; study of functions of digestion, 154-156; flight of projectiles, 191-193; filming of a kingfisher, 217-218; in micro-motion, 177-180; by an ophthalmic surgeon, 193; growth of plants, 124-129; technical, 187, 188-189. _See also_ Scientific investigations.

Exposure, length of, 43-47

Film (unexposed), cost, 12; description, 11; developing, 65-74, 78; drying, 75-77; Eastman stock, 63; fixing, 74-75; the indicator, 42; loading the box, 35-37; matt film, 38-39; threading, 28-29 (ill.), 39-41; printing, 79-93; special for Carvallo apparatus, 153; winding, 77

Film jointer, 37

Film-pictures: prices, 5-7, 217-221

Fixing-bath, formula, 74

Focus-lamp, 89

Focussing, 30-31, 38; effect of length of exposure, 47

Formulæ: Eastman developer, 70; restrainer for over-exposed films, 71; fixing bath; 74; soaking solution, 75

"French Cradle of Cinematography," 251

Füchs, Dr. Otto, investigations, 188-190

Gate, the, described, 29

Gaumont, Company, picture plays, 241

Geneva stop movement, 26

Gilbreth, Mr. Frank B., 143; micro-motion study, 175-184

"Graphic Method, The," book by E. J. Marey, 249

"Great White Scourge, The" (film), 222

Gun, photographic, 250

"Hamlet," filming of play, 242

Hand camera. _See under_ Cameras.

Health films, 222-223

Herkomer, Sir Hubert von, and picture plays, 243-247

High-speed cameras. _See under_ Cameras.

Illuminant, 130-132, 190; in micro-cinematography, 167, 170

International Institution for Cinematographic Research, 250-251. _See also_ Marey Institute.

Interrupter, 158-159; of Cranz apparatus, 191

Iris diaphragm, use illustrated, 45; table of stops, 46-47

Jannsen's astronomical revolver, 249-250

Jury autocam, 58-59

Jury duplex, 80; printing apparatus, 82-85

Jury outfit, 10

Kearton, Mr. Cherry, jungle pictures, 5, 53; use of aeroscope, 55

Lens, the, 23-25; iris diaphragm, 43-47; for radio-cinematography, 160

"Life of a Moorhen" (film), 221

"Life Target, the," apparatus, 201-207

Lumière Brothers, 172, 256

Marey, Dr. E. J., 111-114, 249-250; physiological research, 195

Marey Institute, founding of, 248-252; later development, 256-258; micro-cinematography, 166-168; radio-cinematography, 147-156; slow-movement records, 125-130

Mason, J. C. Bee, films of insect life, 219

Matt film, 38-39

Mechanics and cinematography, 187-190

Micro-cinematography, 161-173

Micro-motion study, 174-184

Military value of cinematography, 197-208

Motograph Film Co., educational films, 220

"Movement," book by E. J. Marey, 185

Movement, intermittent, 26-31

"Movies," the, 22

Muybridge, investigator, 250

National Cinematographic Laboratories, a plea for, 248, 252-256

National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, 253

New England Butt Co., 176-180

New Era camera, 22

Newman, Mr. Frank A., 217

Noguès, M. M. P., camera described and illustrated, 114; claw motion device, 153

Odograph, the, 249

"One-turn-one-picture," principle, 125, 133

Optical illusion, 13-14; illusions described and explained, 95-107

"Out-position" of claw, 29

Over-exposed film, restrainer for, 71

Paterson and Musgrave, Messrs., 198-201

Pathé Frères, 156, 169

Paul, Mr. Robert, 26

Persistence of vision, law of, 14, 122

Photographic gun, 250

Photo play. _See_ Picture play.

Physiological Institute, Paris, 195

Picture palace as illustrated newspaper, 2

Picture play, 224-226; hints on construction, 227-234; warning to amateurs, 234-235; commercial value, 235-237

"Pin" frame, 67-68 (ill.)

Pneumograph, the, 249

Printing, 79-93

Proszynski, Kasimir de, 54-55

Punch, the, 42

Radio-cinematography, 147-160

Rainey, Paul, 9

Rapid movement, record of, 108-116; projection of, 117-122

Records, continuous, 136; apparatus, 137-138; scientific experiments with, 139-146

Reinforced screen, 158

Revolver, astronomical, 249-250

Ries, Dr. J., investigations, 168

Robertson, Sir Forbes, in picture play, 242

Ross lens, 23

Ruby light, the, 68

Scientific investigation, 185-196. _See also under_ Experiments and investigations.

Slow movements, record and projection of, 124-133

Soaking solution formula, 75

Speed, photographic and projecting, 16-20; slowing down, 108-123; speeding up, 124-134

Spitta, Dr., 164

Spoolwinder, 77

Sprocket, 28 (ill.)

Stock, 34

"String" galvanometer, 137

"Swat the Fly," health film, 222

Thermograph, the, 249

Time registration, tuning-fork, 103-107; chronoscope, 111-112

Trick films, difficulties of, 6

Tripod, 32-34

Tuning-fork control, 103-107

View finder, the, 49

Williamson, Mr. James, 24; micro-cinematographic studies, 164

Williamson outfit, 10; camera, 8, 24-28 (ill.); printer, 80, 85-87 (ill.); focussing, 30, 38, 47; mounting, 31; driving gear, 32; iris diaphragm, 43-46

X-rays and cinematography. _See_ Radio-cinematography.

Zeiss-Tessar lens, 23-24, 43

BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.

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Transcriber's note:

Page 198 "fusilade" changed to "fusillade". (As the paper became perforated under the fusillade it was rolled up.)

Inconsistent use of "Moor-hen" and "Moorhen" was standardised to "Moorhen".