CHAPTER XV.

THE PORCELAINS OF ENGLAND.

Bow.--Chelsea.--Derby.--Chelsea-Derby.--Lowestoft.--Worcester. --Chamberlains.--Plymouth.--Bristol.--Pinxton.--Nantgaraw.--Swansea. --Turners.--Coalport.--Coalbrookdale.--Herculaneum.--Shelton, New Hall.--Rockingham.--Spode, Copeland.--Place.--Daniell.--Minton. --Prices and Marks.

In England, following the discovery and production of porcelain in Saxony, there sprang up a very wide interest in the art. It was not an interest which enlisted all classes there--as, indeed, it did not anywhere in Europe; but among persons of taste and wealth it became of such importance as to be a "fashion."

The discovery of kaolin-clay in Saxony stimulated enterprising men to seek for it elsewhere.

There is much doubt yet, and there has been a vast amount of time spent upon the question in England, as to when and where the production of china first took place in that country. It is not for me, here in America, to make any attempts to solve it. What I may do is to try to present to our own people, in some compact and readable form, what Marryat, Chaffers, and others in England, have arrived at after much patient research and comparison. Some of the most useful and most important works on pottery and porcelain--of which enough have been written to form a library of themselves--will be mentioned at the end of this book; for in all of them much is to be found of value to those who care to go into this curious and interesting branch of art-production more fully than any one volume will enable them to do.

From these facts--that many of the manufactories in England had but a short career; and that the work produced, in many cases, had no marks, or had a great variety of marks; that in some cases but little work was made, and that of that little much has disappeared--a surprising interest has come to be attached to that which remains; and in some cases surprising prices have been paid for it, and are now paid.

It is for these reasons, rather than for its intrinsic beauty, that most English porcelain is so eagerly desired. It is not generally remarkable for perfection of form or of paste, or for originality or beauty of color and ornament; but in some cases all of these are to be found. The early paste of the older factories, such as Bow and Chelsea, is considered inferior to the best Chinese and Japanese, and to the early Dresden and Sèvres. Afterward the paste was greatly improved, until now that made at the porcelain-works at Worcester, and at some other of the English factories, is not surpassed anywhere. It seems to me that the English modelers have not cultivated that sense of perfection of form and grace of line which was so wonderful in Greece, and in which the French modelers excel the English. It may be that the desire for strength, which seems to inspire most English porcelain, has demanded the sacrifice of that delicacy, thinness, and niceness, which have for a long time prevailed in France. But the English porcelain is noted for its strength and wearing quality; it is certainly superior in this respect to most of the French work.

Whoever has interest enough in the subject should visit, when in England, the porcelain-works at Worcester, now conducted by Mr. Binns. Here he can see all the processes going on, by means of which the teacup and the dinner-plate are brought to perfection. It is not a simple matter. Several kinds of clays are to be got together--some from England; some, perhaps, from elsewhere. These are ground to such an impalpable fineness that they are floated away in water, and are allowed to settle into tanks, from which, when in the right condition, they are taken to the moulder for use. The collecting, the mixing, the grinding of these clays is the result of much brain and hand work--a great deal more than most men are obliged to use in getting into Congress or Parliament, or in writing a book.

As the dexterous potter moulds upon his wheel the forms of the Greek amphora or the Chinese teacup, they seem to spring under his hand as if touched by the fairy's wand.

I think no one can see this work grow without a feeling of surprised pleasure; and, after witnessing it, no one can fail to have a greater satisfaction at seeing and using the various objects of use and beauty, to be found now in every house--a satisfaction increased by knowledge. Even in the ordinary mug or jug which costs a sixpence, are often to be detected great knowledge, much art. We do not give the workman half his due when we fail to feel how much we owe to him. An eye to see the beautiful, the good, the true, is to be prayed for.

When the turner and modeler has perfected his pot, it has to go through its firings, glazings, paintings, until it comes to us a perfected work, which we too often hardly look at. It is only a jug!

There is more than the money's worth in every good piece of cabinet-work, iron-work, woven fabric, etc.; for with every honest workman's hand goes a part of his soul: he gives it willingly, gladly.

BOW--SOFT PASTE.--The small village of Stratford-le-Bow, in Middlesex, now, I think, a part of London, is believed to be the place where a china-factory was first established in England, and some suppose it may have been as early as 1730, though 1744 is the earliest authentic date mentioned. Mr. Chaffers[15] says--and it has some interest to us Americans, as perhaps showing whence the old and great England drew its first porcelain life--"William Cookeworthy, of Plymouth, writing to a friend in 1745, says: 'I had lately with me the person who has discovered the _china-earth_. He had with him several samples of the china-ware, which I think were equal to the Asiatic. It was found on the back of Virginia, where he was in quest of mines; and having read Du Halde, he discovered both the _petunze_ and _kaolin_. It is this latter earth which he says is essential to the success of the manufacture. He is gone for a cargo of it, having bought from the Indians the whole country where it rises. They can import it for thirteen pounds sterling the ton,'" etc.

It seems probable or possible that this earth was used to some extent in the earlier productions at Bow, as it is mentioned in the application of the company for patents, and as it appears that some hard porcelain is found among the earlier examples existing, in which this kaolin was perhaps used--called by the natives "unaker."

The enterprise at Bow was purely a private one, originating with Edward Heylin, a merchant, and Thomas Frye, a painter. Unlike the works at Meissen, Sèvres, and indeed many others on the Continent, none of the factories in England had the assistance of the Government. The Bow works were afterward carried on by Crowther and Weatherby. In the British Museum is a large punch-bowl, made at Bow and painted by Thomas Craft, which is accompanied with his certificate. This statement shows that the works at Bow at that time (1760) had become extensive, if not profitable, for he mentions, "They employed there three hundred persons; about ninety painters (of whom I was one), and about two hundred turners, throwers, etc."

The examples existing, and recently-discovered documents, go to show that the paste or body at Bow was not of supreme excellence, and not at all equal to that made on the Continent at that time. The painting was in a variety of designs, as appears by some memorandum-books, still existing: "Blue Newark pattern," "sets of blue teas," "a dinner-service," "blue and pale as you please." Tea-sets were evidently much made, and "white bud-sprigs," "sprigged tea-sets," and "Dresden sprigs," are mentioned.

While all the first work at Bow was hand-painted, it appears that later, about 1756, printed or transfer work was used there; this, of course, secured cheaper sets.

A great variety and number of figures, such as shepherdesses, birds, animals, hunters, Chinese figures, etc., were made at Bow as well as at Chelsea, which, of course, have been much sought for, and have sold at high prices. Though these figures are not desirable as pieces of _sculpture_, many of them are interesting as showing the dresses of the day, especially such figures as Woodward the actor, and Mistress Kitty Clive, who were modeled at Bow.

Much confusion exists as to what is Bow and what is Chelsea, as the styles of work run much together. Many pieces of each factory bore no mark. Some of the best-known marks will be given at the end of this account; but it may be well to say that the incised triangle, which for a long time was supposed to be a sure indication of Bow, is now placed with Chelsea. Some pieces marked "New Canton" are known to be Bow.

It is curious to note that he who would be a good salesman in those "good old times," must do what salesmen in these later and baser times are sometimes tempted to do. Let me explain.

Mr. Bowcocke was a manager or salesman at Bow, and he kept a note-book, in which are written down his doings with Mrs. McNally, a good customer of the wares:

_Oct. 16._--Bought a china figure for Mrs. McNally 4_s._ Painting " " 1_s._ 3_d._ Treating Mrs. McNally, wine 1_s._ Went to see her home from the play 1_s._ Paid 2_d._

If that were the only transaction, think of it!

Sales 5_s._ 3_d._ Expenses of same 2_s._ 4_d._

Not lucrative to the Bow salesman!

The Bow works continued with varied success until about 1775 to 1776, when the moulds, implements, etc., were sold to Mr. Duesbury, who transferred and merged all into the greater works at Derby. (_See_ DERBY.)

Marks on Bow porcelain:

CHELSEA--SOFT PASTE.--The porcelain-works at Chelsea, near London, were begun before the year 1747, by some workmen brought from Burslem and elsewhere; a little later, in 1748 to 1749, they were more firmly established, under the direction of a foreigner named Sprimont, or Spremont. The works were carried on by him until about the year 1769, when they were advertised for sale, and he retired from the business.

Some very expensive, elaborate, and beautiful vases were made by him, of which two in the possession of Earl Dudley are said to be hardly surpassed by anything made at Dresden or Sèvres. The price paid for one of them, in 1868, was two thousand pounds sterling.

The first work made seems to have been in imitation of Chinese porcelain, and it is doubtful if much original designing was done at Chelsea. Chaffers says: "The fine vases in the French style, in imitation of Sèvres, with gros bleu, crimson, turquoise, and apple-green, were made from about 1760 to 1765."

The illustration given (Fig. 147) is one of their most highly-decorated vases, and is unquestionably brilliant. But it has the vice, as it seems to me, of over-decoration; there is no restraint, none of the delicacy of true art. The form, too, lacks perfectness in many ways.

The want of invention or original design in England would seem to indicate that porcelain was not a natural or spontaneous art there. In France and in Saxony, on the contrary, while much of the taste is questionable, and some of it bad, many original and peculiar works were designed and executed. This was not the case in England; and, indeed, excepting Wedgwood, we can hardly point to any conspicuous examples of creative power. Here the god of Trade comes in, for it _pays better_ to copy than to create.

About 1769 the Chelsea works went into the hands of Duesbury, of Derby, who carried them on in connection with his Derby works until about 1784, when all were transferred to Derby.

The paste or body used at Chelsea was so soft and tender that it was nearly valueless for works of use. It was therefore confined to articles of beauty and luxury, such as vases, bowls, dishes, cups, and tea-services; also to figures in great variety, like those made at Bow. These are much, sought for, and command high prices. They have been counterfeited to some extent.

One very curious incident is quoted by Marryat, from Faulkner's "History of Chelsea:" "Mr. H. Stephens was told by the foreman of the china-factory (then in the workhouse of St. Luke's, Middlesex), that Dr. Johnson had conceived a notion that he was capable of improving on the manufacture of china." He visited the factory with his house-keeper, had access to the various mixing-rooms, made his own composition, had them baked, etc., but always "completely failed." The doctor retired in disgust.

That the brain of the purblind, the prejudiced, the arrogant British philosopher should have thought of many things, and should have believed himself capable of any and all things, is not surprising; but the sight of him in a porcelain-factory might well enough have originated the stories in history of "the bull in a china-shop."

One might be pardoned for paying a "good penny" for a teacup modeled by the dexterous hands of Dr. Johnson.

Another curious fact which may interest and encourage us in these "trading-times" is, that the proprietors of the Chelsea works were then obliged to protest and petition against the smuggling of French and Dresden porcelain into England _for sale_ in quantities, under the cover of the ministers' privilege to import for their own use. So, if all the men in the days of our fathers were brave, they certainly were not all honest.

At the sale of the Bernal[16] collection, in 1855, some Chelsea china sold as follows:

A pair of beautiful globular scalloped vases and covers, deep blue, painted with exotic buds, with pierced borders and covers of the highest quality £110 5_s._

A cup and saucer, with festoons in raised white (chipped) 1 1_s._

Another, with flowers and crimson drapery edges 3

A beautiful two-handled cup and saucer, with medallions of Cupids in pink, and striped gold sides 21

Mr. Marryat mentions the sale of some "Chelsea" in 1865:

At Lord Cardogan's sale, a pair of vases, painted with exotic buds on gold ground 60 guineas.

A two-handled vase, open-work back and cover painted with flowers, on a gold ground, seventeen inches high 250 guineas.

A fine figure of a female holding a branch, a lion at her feet, penciled in gold 100 guineas.

Fifteen plates of old Chelsea, blue and gold, fetched £150

There are but few examples of Bow and Chelsea in this country. Mr. Prime, and Mr. Barlow, of New York, I am told, have some pieces. Mr. Wales has a bowl, and cup and saucer, in very rich, warm colors, being designs from china, which are no doubt Chelsea, and excellent work. They are shown in Fig. 148, on the right-hand corner, but this cannot, of course, give any idea of the fine coloring.

Marks of Chelsea porcelain:

DERBY--SOFT PASTE.--The Derby china--and the "Crown Derby," now most known--was famous in its day--from about 1750 to the end of the century--and from Derby, in England, it was sold to a very wide extent over Europe. Specimens are met with in Holland, Italy, Spain, etc. The factory was established by William Duesbury, and was, after his death, carried on by his son; by a Mr. Reeve, who married the widow; and, in 1815, it went into the possession of Robert Bloor. The works were not finally closed till 1848. Duesbury, who purchased the moulds and property of both the Bow and the Chelsea factories, carried on the works at Derby and at Chelsea for some time; and much of the porcelain made at that time is called Chelsea-Derby. The early mark of the Derby was a capital D, and the Chelsea-Derby mark is the same D, with the Chelsea anchor in its middle. The crown with the anchor, or with crossed lines and dots, and sometimes with the D under it, was used after the patronage of George III. had been extended to the works (about 1777), and is now most commonly found upon the best work of this factory. After 1815 "Bloor's" name is found upon the work.

During the best portion of Duesbury's time, dinner, dessert, breakfast, and tea services, of great richness and splendor, were made; and at that time the patronage of nobility and gentry was more generous than it had been to any other English factory. Duesbury carried to great perfection the combination of a rich blue with gold, not only in his vases, urns, etc., but also as edges to his dinner and tea services. "He has brought the gold and blue to a degree of beauty never before obtained in England, and the drawing and coloring of the flowers are truly elegant," writes a tourist in 1777.

In the examples I have had an opportunity of seeing, this is true; but one is obliged to feel in this, as in almost all the fine china of England, a lack of perfection and delicacy in form and modeling.

Groups and figures were made in great variety and number at Derby, upon which no splendor or expense of gold and color was spared. These are found in nearly all the good collections of England and the Continent. At this time--the end of the last century--it was much the fashion for ladies to paint, for their own use and for gifts, single pieces, and indeed whole sets; and the white china of Derby was often sold for that purpose. These amateur productions occasionally find their way into the shops, and naturally perplex the collector.

Duesbury's prices were not high. In an invoice extant we find:

Pair of knotting figures, finely enameled and gilt £2 2_s._

Twenty-four dessert-plates, in medallions and grapes, each 13_s._

Three large punch-bowls, painted, ye allusion of stag-hunting, hare-hunting, and fishing; each 42_s._

Great care was taken that nothing but perfect work went from, the factory; this kept the character of the Derby works high. But it filled their shops with many "seconds." When Mr. Bloor came into possession, of the factory, these seconds were sold by auction in various parts of England; and this greatly injured the name and fame of "Derby," from which it did not recover.

The Bernal sale records of Chelsea-Derby and Derby:

Five old Derby plates, with Cupids in pink and flower borders £9

Three of Derby-Chelsea, with bases and deep-blue borders 2 12_s._ 6_d._

A two-handled cup, cover, and saucer, with landscapes and roses on a yellow ground 17 6_s._ 6_d._

None of these were the best work, and brought but corresponding prices.

Marks used on Derby porcelain:

LOWESTOFT--SOFT AND MOSTLY HARD PASTE.--Much uncertainty, discussion, and perplexity, have prevailed concerning the porcelain made at Lowestoft, on the eastern coast of England, near Yarmouth.

About 1756, as is agreed to by both Marryat and Chaffers, a gentleman named Luson attempted a manufactory of pottery and porcelain there, which was not successful. Shortly after another was attempted, which for a time succeeded well; in this Mr. Robert Browne was the principal man. Pottery and porcelain were made here in great variety and in considerable quantities--much of it for exportation, and especially for the Turkish markets; and some of it appears to have been marked with a crescent, like that made at Worcester. But, as a rule, no marks, either of the factory or the painter, were used at Lowestoft.

Not only was pottery, or earthenware, made here, but the early porcelain was soft ware. Mr. Chaffers states that, about 1775, hard paste was made there in close imitation of Chinese. He states, also, that some of the heavier pieces, like tureens and punch-bowls, had a sort of uneven surface, as if it had been patted into shape by the hand or a tool. This patted or uneven surface is a defect; but as this is found also in heavy pieces of porcelain, which are Chinese beyond question, it ceases to be a distinguishing mark of Lowestoft work--if, indeed, it is a mark of it at all, which one may be permitted still to doubt.

Some of the work reached great perfection, and the egg-shell cups, etc., made there are said to be equal to any others made in Europe. Among the peculiar decorations were hares' heads for handles, fruits for knobs of covers, doubled handles to mugs, braided or crossed, which are asserted to be quite distinct from Oriental designs.

"Another striking variety is the fan and feather pattern, in imitation of _Capo di Monte_, painted in purple, blue, and red, in the form of basins and ewers. Many of these vases are elaborately painted, with diaper-work in gold, and colors, and escutcheons of flowers, and small landscapes. Among all the flowers and exquisite floral patterns the rose predominates, and it is remarkable how easily the peculiar touch of the artist--whose name was Rose--can be detected. Another style of decoration peculiar to Lowestoft is a rococo scroll or running border of flowers, slightly raised upon the plain surface in opaque white enamel."

In the collection of Mr. J. V. L. Pruyn, at Albany, is quite a large dinner-service with the rose-decoration, which we can easily believe to be true Lowestoft. The colors are not brilliant, nor is the glaze perfect. The paste lacks the whiteness of the best Chinese, and is lighter than any true Chinese porcelain I have seen. Some persons in this country think that many or most of the dinner and tea services ordered in the United States during the last century, and which it was supposed were made in China, really came from Lowestoft through Liverpool or Bristol; among them those sets which bore initials in a sort of shield, and were finished on the edges with a deep-blue band studded with gold stars. It seems certain that this kind of decoration was done at Lowestoft; it is equally certain that it was also done in China, from designs sent out there. I have myself some pieces so decorated, which were imported direct from China to New Haven about the end of the last century.

The perplexity and discussion existing as to the hard-paste porcelain made at Lowestoft have been increased by the statements made by Mr. Marryat and Mr. Jewett, in England, that much white undecorated porcelain was imported into Lowestoft from China, and was painted in England. Some of the forms and decorations made at Lowestoft are so like those made in China that it has been almost impossible to distinguish them. To a person not interested, this will seem a matter of the very slightest consequence; to a china-fancier quite the contrary. Sydney Smith, you will remember, said it was strange, but quite true, that "there were persons living who spoke disrespectfully of the equator, but we should bear with them and pity them." This advice we must apply to those who care nothing about porcelain.

Mr. Chaffers, in his work, "Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain," presents very strong and varied testimony to show that no white porcelain was imported from China and painted at Lowestoft; that the hard paste made at Lowestoft is quite different, and not so hard as that made in China, and need not be confounded with it. My own belief is that much of what is called "Lowestoft," both in England and in the United States, was made in China.

We engrave (Fig. 149) a pretty tea-service from Mr. Wales's collection, which will recall to many of our readers what they have seen on their grandmothers' tables any time in this century. It is a style of decoration which was done at Lowestoft, and also in China.

No marks were used on the Lowestoft.

The next illustration (Fig. 150), from the collection of John V. L. Pruyn, Esq., of Albany, is characteristic as showing the use of the rose at Lowestoft. No better example of it probably exists in this country. The paste is peculiar, and not like much which is called Lowestoft. The plate is sixteen and a half inches in diameter, the colors are good, and the painting is carefully done.

WORCESTER--SOFT PASTE.--At Worcester, in the year 1751, the Worcester Porcelain Company was formed, which has continued from that day to this. Dr. Wall, a physician and chemist, has the credit of being the originator of this the largest and most enduring of English porcelain-works. The clergy of the cathedral were greatly interested, and had much to do with the success of the company.

In the beginning, it seems, there was a large production of tea and breakfast services for domestic use; and much of this was like the Chinese blue and white, copied from Oriental designs. Afterward a trade sprung up with Turkey, and much china was made for that market. Many of the early marks, and particularly upon the Oriental designs, were copies of those found upon pieces of Chinese porcelain; among which the square seal-mark (given further on) is most often met with. The crescent, which is a well-known Worcester mark, most likely came into use when the production of porcelain for the Saracen markets became an important business. It is curious to note how very large a demand for fine china came from Turkey at that day, and it exists still. It is now some four years ago that I found, in Holland, a large selection of high-priced china had just been made for Constantinople, and I was told then that there was always a good demand there, and at good prices. The Turk is not altogether abominable, though he is a most disturbing quantity in the politics of Europe (1876 to 1878).

The blue, so much in use in the early decoration, was not a good color, being inclined toward black; but afterward this was greatly improved--approaching the fine cobalt color, though it never reached the exquisite "celestial blue" of Nanking.

A very large production at Worcester was in making copies of vases and other work done at Dresden, upon which birds, insects, and flowers, were painted with great care; so much so that, if the paste were not different, it might not be easy to distinguish them from the Dresden. The crossed swords and caduceus (see Dresden marks) were also used as marks on these.

It is quite clear that those things which imitated what other nations did, sold best at that time in England; and this, more than poverty of invention, we may suppose induced those excellent English artists to copy rather than create. Chaffers mentions the following as the most noted painters at Worcester: Pennington, figures; Astle, flowers; Davis, exotic birds; Webster, landscapes and flowers; Barber, shells; Brewer, landscapes; Baxter, Lowe, and Cole, figure-subjects; Billingsly, flowers.

Printing in black upon the porcelain was practised at Worcester to a considerable extent; and mugs with pictures of Frederick the Great seem to have been popular at that day, and are much sought for now. The portraits of George II. and III. were also in demand, as well as many others.

The flower-painting upon this, as upon all other European porcelain, was naturalistic--copied, as nearly as possible, from Nature. Good as much of it is beyond question, it fails to give to most persons the gratification which comes from the Oriental treatment. The last is decoration, the first is imitation.

The rich dark blues, lighted up with much gilding, is a characteristic of some of the best Worcester work, as well as that made at Derby.

Without reaching the fine translucency of the Dresden and Sèvres paste or body, that at Worcester was a great advance upon the other English factories, inasmuch as it was strong and durable; and the glaze was also better; it did not "_craze_"--shoot into cracks--like much of that made at Derby.

In 1783 the works went into the possession of the Messrs. Flight. In 1793 they were carried on by Flight and Barr. In 1840 they were controlled by Chamberlain; and at the present time (1876) they are in charge of Mr. K. W. Binns, who employs a great force, and produces much excellent work, and some which may be called exquisite. His imitations of Limoges enamels and Chinese ivory-work are perfect; as it seems to me, quite too good. I should like to see such perfection applied to genuine work and to original design. He has also made a specialty of reproducing curious examples of Japanese, Chinese, and Corean porcelain, sometimes identically and sometimes in modified forms. We engrave (Fig. 151) a fine example of the latter from the collection of Messrs. Tiffany and Company, of New York.

Among our illustrations (see Fig. 148) are two plates containing portraits of Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Dürer. The colors are red, brown, and gold; also a teacup and saucer, most delightfully and richly painted. These are in the possession of G. W. Wales, Esq., of Boston. In Fig. 152 is a teapot in rich blue and gold, part of a set belonging to Mr. W. C. Prime. This has the mark + of Bristol, but, as it is soft paste, it is probably Worcester.

Marks of Worcester porcelain:

The marks used at the present time at Worcester (1876) are as follows:

CHAMBERLAIN'S--WORCESTER.--In 1786 Robert and Humphrey Chamberlain began a porcelain-factory at Worcester. Robert had learned the business in the old Worcester works, and was an accomplished man. Some splendidly-decorated porcelain was made by them; and a breakfast-set, made for Lord Nelson, is quite famous. Pieces of it are found in collections. The Chamberlains employed the best painters, and paid high wages. Their expensive work was made rich with much gold.

A dessert-service in the possession of Mr. W. C. Prime, of New York, shows this, and is brilliant and effective. We engrave one of the plates (Fig. 152). The birds are tropical, and fine in color, and the plants are bordered with gold. The Chamberlains' factories are now incorporated with the "Worcester Company," under the charge of Mr. Binns.

The Chamberlains' first mark was the name "Chamberlain," written with a brush in a running hand. Afterward a stamp was used, containing a crown and the names "Chamberlain and Company," and Worcester. Then the names simply of

CHAMBERLAIN, WORCESTER.

Marks of Chamberlain porcelain:

PLYMOUTH--HARD PORCELAIN.--The first true or hard-paste porcelain made in England was made by William Cookworthy, who, being greatly interested in porcelain-making, established a factory at Plymouth about 1760. He seems to have discovered the true kaolin clays in Cornwall, the beds from which so much of the English clays are now taken. He took out patents for "a kind of porcelain newly invented, composed of Moorstone or growan, and growan clay," found in Devon and Cornwall. He advertised for painters, and a Frenchman named Soqui seems to have been very skillful. Bone, also, was one of his best painters. The ware made was perfect hard porcelain, but it was much more costly than the ordinary soft porcelain of England, and could not compete with it for price. Many of the pieces were warped or crazed in the strong heat necessarily used, and the loss in this way was great. Besides this, the good public did not care to pay high for what then had no prestige, and was really no more beautiful than the soft-paste porcelain of England. As the _first_ hard-paste porcelain made in England, and as but little of it was made, it is now valued by china-collectors, and it sells for high prices.

Some highly-finished dinner and tea services made there, like the Nanking blue, are excellent, and are much valued. Vases and other pieces painted in colors, with birds and other highly-colored designs, were also produced in the same styles as those made on the Continent. Figures, also, then much in fashion, were modeled here, like those made at Chelsea and elsewhere.

Cookworthy spent much money, and made none, and he came to his end. At last, in 1774, he sold his interests and patents to Champion, of Bristol, and the work ceased.

The mark used was the sign of the planet Jupiter--very nearly the figure _4_. It was somewhat varied.

Marks used on Plymouth porcelain:

BRISTOL--HARD PASTE.--The production at Bristol grew out of that at Plymouth, of which we have given a brief account. Richard Champion, merchant, of Bristol, was a man of much activity and ability. He took up the making of porcelain with eagerness, and is said to have produced both soft and hard china at his factory. The hard paste was used after his purchase of the patents, etc., of the Plymouth factory in 1774. Besides some very indifferent porcelain, some very beautiful work was made at Bristol; and for two or three years there was much activity there. But Champion, having no technical knowledge or skill, and but insufficient capital, soon failed, and the work ceased in 1777. He emigrated to South Carolina, where he died in 1791.

So little of this Bristol hard porcelain was made that it now brings great prices.

Blue and white tea and dessert services, in the style of the Chinese, were made there, as were many articles decorated with flowers. Walpole mentions, in his list of prices, "a cup and saucer, white, with green festoons of flowers, of Bristol porcelain."

Marryat refers to a fine tea and coffee service made for Edmund Burke in 1774, who presented it to a Mrs. Smith, who had entertained him during his election. He says: "The china is rich in gilding, the design elegant, and the execution good."

Mrs. James, of Cambridge, has one or two cups and saucers of blue hard paste marked with the + in gold--not in blue, which was the usual mark of Bristol; but there is little doubt that these are true Bristol.

Marks found on Bristol porcelain:

PINXTON, DERBYSHIRE--SOFT PASTE.--About 1793 to 1794 a small manufactory of porcelain was started at Pinxton by John Coke and William Billingsly. This last had been a practical potter and an excellent painter of flowers at Derby. He had some secrets for mixing his paste, which secured great translucency, but it was very tender, and easily damaged or destroyed in the kiln. This peculiar paste made by him at Pinxton, afterward at Nantgarw or Nantgarow, and at Swansea, breaks with a granulated fracture, and is quite different in this respect from any other. A favorite decoration was what was termed the "French sprig," composed of forget-me-nots and gold sprigs scattered over the plate. Flowers and landscapes also were painted, and the dishes were usually finished with a blue or a gold edge. No marks were used, though a letter P is sometimes attributed to this factory.

NANTGARW--HARD PORCELAIN.--This porcelain-factory in Glamorganshire was started in 1813 by the same Billingsly. He made a clear and beautiful paste, and his productions, whether made at Pinxton, Nantgarw, or Swansea, are highly valued.

The mark was nearly always NANTGARW, impressed.

SWANSEA.--Earthen-ware was made at Swansea as early as 1750 in considerable quantities. But it was not till near the end of the century that porcelain was produced there by Messrs. Haines and Company.

The porcelain subsequently made (about 1814, and later) is now much prized. About 1820 the Swansea works were purchased by Mr. Rose, and all was concentrated at Coalport.

Both at Nantgarw and Swansea very free and finely-colored roses appear on the work, probably done by Billingsly. But little of either of these factories exists.

Marks used on Swansea porcelain:

TURNER (THOMAS) erected a porcelain-factory at Caughley, near Bridgnorth, in 1775. The Caughley works were commenced in 1751 by Mr. Browne, of Caughley Hall, in a small way, for earthen-ware, and reached little distinction until they came into the hands of Turner. Turner made excellent porcelain, and has the credit of introducing the famous "Willow-pattern"--copied from the Nanking blue; also the "blue Dragon"--into England. The principal marks are as follows.

Marks of Caughley and of Turner:

COALPORT, IN COLEBROOK DALE, SHROPSHIRE.--Works were established here by Mr. John Rose, about 1780 to 1790. The Caughley works were subsequently incorporated with these, as were the Swansea and Nantgarw works. The factory is still in operation at Coalport, where fine porcelain is produced.

Marks used at Coalport:

HERCULANEUM.--This pottery was established near Liverpool in 1790, by Richard Abbey; about 1796 it went into the hands of Messrs. Worthington, Humble, and Holland. Porcelain was made here, though earthen-ware was the principal production. On nearly all the porcelain the name "Herculaneum" is either printed or stamped. The works ceased wholly about the year 1841, having passed through a number of hands. The site is now occupied by the Herculaneum Dock, at Liverpool.

SHELTON, OR NEW HALL--HARD PASTE.--A small factory of porcelain grew up at Shelton, out of the wreck of Champion's works at Bristol. Champion appears to have sold his patents and good-will to a partnership of potters about 1777, and Champion himself became their superintendent for a time at Tunstall. Afterward the works were removed to the New Hall, at Shelton.

The work done was hard paste, and much like that made at Bristol, the same workmen and processes being employed. At first hard porcelain was made, which was stamped with an "N." After 1810 soft paste was used, and the mark then was "New Hall," in a circle.

The factory went out of existence in 1825.

ROCKINGHAM.--Some admirable porcelain was made at the Swinton pottery, under the patronage of the Marquis of Rockingham, upon whose estate the factory stood. About 1807 the works went into the hands of the two Bramelds, who made porcelain of the best description, sparing no pains or cost to bring it to perfection. Of course, they could make no money--it is not easy when one gives more than one gets. Some of the pieces of "Rockingham" rank as high as any made in England. Specimens are rare in England, and I know of none in this country. The works ceased in 1842.

The mark was a griffin, the Rockingham crest:

SPODE.--Some of the richest and most beautiful English porcelain I have ever seen is marked "Spode." A tea-set, in Fig. 152 (cup and saucer, and sugar-bowl), is perfect in form, paste, and decoration; the bands are in high colors, and the flowers, which appear black in the engraving, are of a subtile blue.

The sugar-bowl on the right, in the same plate (Fig. 152), is highly and richly colored. No black-and-white print can give anything of the splendor of color of some pieces of Spode I saw in England, or of the piece here figured, which is from Mr. Prime's collection.

There seems to have been no fashion or "rage" for this delightful work in England--just why, it is not easy to explain; consequently, prices have not risen beyond the means of ordinary mortals.

The first "'Siah Spode" worked as an apprentice with Mr. Whieldon, of Fenton, in 1749, at 2_s._ 3_d._ or 2_s._ 6_d._ per week, "if he deserved it." When he became his own man, in 1754, he got 7_s._ 6_d._ per week--quite a different wages-tale from what is now told at Worcester.

His son, Josiah Spode, began the porcelain fabric about the year 1800, at Stoke, under the firm-name of Spode, Son, and Copeland. He is said to have introduced _bones_ into the paste--now in general use in soft porcelain.

In 1833 the works were purchased by Alderman W. T. Copeland. In 1843 the firm-name was Copeland and Garrett. Afterward, Alderman Copeland alone was again the proprietor. His mark was two crossed C's, with the name Copeland beneath:

The works are now conducted under the name of W. T. Copeland and Sons, and the mark is nearly the same, the only difference being that the crossed C's are ornamented.

The Copelands are noted for the excellence of the style and finish of their higher grades of porcelain, in which they are surpassed by no other English house. One of their specialties is jeweled porcelain, in which jewels are represented by colored enamels with fine effect. We give an example of this in Fig. 153, from the collection of Messrs. Tiffany and Company.

Mr. FRANCIS PLACE, a gentleman of Yorkshire, made porcelain late in the 1600's or early in the 1700's. A few examples of it only are known to exist, and it probably was made rather as an experiment, and did not reach a commercial circulation.

H. and R. DANIELL, of Stoke and Shelton, made fine porcelain and stoneware as early as 1826. Some of this porcelain is highly praised by Chaffers. It is doubtful if we have any of it in the United States.

WEDGWOODS.--The old house of Wedgwood, founded by Josiah--of whom I speak in another place--is still in active service, and has in these later years produced porcelain of great excellence.

MINTON'S works, at Stoke-upon-Trent, are now very extensive. Not only is porcelain made there in great variety, but earthen-ware and tiles largely.

The factory was established in 1791, by Thomas Minton. Some of the most elaborate pieces of porcelain-work are now made there. The mark is "Minton," stamped on the pieces.

Among the principal artists in the Messrs. Mintons' employ is M. Solon, formerly of Sèvres, who has produced some exquisite vases in _pâte-sur-pâte_--a method which consists in working, upon a dark body or paste, designs in a white or lighter paste. This, being semi-transparent, admits of delicate shading and modeling. This fascinating and finished style of work originated, so far as we know, in France, where some admirable pieces have been made, more perfect even than those by M. Solon. The vases by him, which were exhibited in Philadelphia in 1876, and which were sold to Sir Richard Wallace for six hundred guineas, have a deep olive-green body, upon which the figures seem floating, as if they had just appeared from the dark, or might at any moment sink into it. The mystery and strength of color no one can fathom or explain, nor can one at all put into words the ineffable satisfaction which one receives from such work as this. It is gratifying to know that two pairs of these vases were bought in this country--one by the Philadelphia Industrial Museum, and one by Henry Gibson, Esq., of that city.

The example which we engrave (Fig. 154) is from the collection of Messrs. Tiffany and Company, of New York. The ground is a luminous blue, the figures in a delicate white.

Although M. Solon has transferred his labors to England, he must be regarded as the outcome rather of the French than of the English soil.

Another feature of the Minton productions is the imitation of _cloisonné_ work, using porcelain instead of metal, and painting on it with colors mixed with opaque enamels, as is practised also in China. We give a fine representation in Fig. 155.

The technical excellence of the modern English porcelain is very great, but it is not remarkable for originality of design. The tea and dinner services shown at the Philadelphia Exhibition were great in number, variety, and excellence. We give illustrations of some pieces made by Messrs. Brown-Westhead, Moore and Company (Figs. 156 and 157), which were satisfactory.

Messrs. Bromfield and Son also had some excellent examples of dinner-porcelain. The excellence of the paste and the finish were notable in all of the displays by the many English exhibitors.

In such an exhibition one looks, of course, for pieces made specially to catch the eye and excite surprise, which might be called the gymnastics of art; and one is usually gratified. The exhibition was rich with them, and, of course, they demanded attention, and achieved their purpose.

The largest and most varied exhibition was made by Messrs. Daniells and Son, of London; and they had collected their work from many potters, some of them among the most distinguished of England at the present time.