Part 4

Some wall-paintings still in their original position will be dealt with later when we come to speak of the respective houses; a few examples out of the rich treasure removed to the Museo Nazionale in Naples may here suffice.

Figure 70 represents a painting which may rank as one of the most famous and the most frequently discussed, the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, probably a copy, though a feeble one, of a famous picture of an earlier period. Ulysses and Diomedes are holding the hapless maiden through whose sacrifice Agamemnon desires to appease the wrath of Artemis and to obtain a favourable wind for the expedition to Troy; they hold her ready for sacrifice before the image of Artemis standing on a column. Calchas the priest has already drawn the knife from its sheath to give the fatal stroke, but still he hesitates, as though he felt some scruple as to undertaking the cruel deed. Agamemnon stands aside, shrouded entirely in his robe, since as a father he cannot bring himself to look with his own eyes upon the carrying out of the sacrifice, to which as king and leader of the army he sees himself compelled. In the gaze which Ulysses directs to the image of Artemis we may read the reproach that she, the goddess, should demand such cruelty. Yet the merciful solution is prepared by the scene enacted above in the sky; there we see the goddess Artemis herself, to her hastens a nymph who brings the deer that is to fall by the sacrificial knife in place of Iphigenia. Figure 71 is derived at any rate from a famous ancient theme, perhaps after a painting by Timomachos; this is the single figure of Medea, who sword in hand plans the murder of her sons. The sword is still sheathed, sunk in deep deliberation she has folded her hands, and pressed thumb against thumb, she is a mother who loves her children tenderly, but she is also a wife who is bitterly sensible of every neglect on the part of her husband. Which feeling will gain the victory? Will it be gained by a mother’s love which pardons everything, or by the jealousy that knows how to strike the husband in the most painful way through the slaying of his children? The conflict of feelings is undoubtedly expressed in a most striking manner in the picture. Figure 73 also represents a picture remarkable for excellent preservation, the abduction of Europa by Zeus in the form of a bull. Europa daughter of Agenor, sports with her companions on the shore of the sea, gathers flowers and weaves garlands. There a bull approaches them (Zeus had concealed himself under this form), who through his tameness gives the maidens courage to busy themselves sportively with him. They deck him with flowers, caress him, nay at last Europa becoming bold mounts his back. It is this moment that the painter has chosen to depict. Europa has lain down on his back, the girls are still playing with him, yet he is already striding forward, only a few steps and he is in the sea, and then will Zeus bear his sweet burden to Crete, and her terrified playmates will vainly stretch forth their arms after the king’s daughter borne far away.

Figure 74 represents a subject often occurring at Pompeii, Venus united with Mars. Mars lays his left hand on the left arm of Venus, who resting at ease lays her left arm on the right thigh of Mars, who with his right hand raises the robe of the goddess so that the whole upper part of her person is uncovered. That the god of war has already quite forgotten his own peculiar mission, and is quite given up to love, is shown by the two Cupids, of whom the one is engaged in girding himself with the god’s sword, while the other is trying his helmet on his own head. Figure 75 offers us a picture with quite a modern interest. The worthy baker Paquius Proculus has had his portrait painted with his better half, since photography has not yet been invented. But for this purpose it is not sufficient to have brought the external form into order, to have neatly smoothed the moustache, and to have crisped the little locks so that they curl daintily over forehead and cheeks and roll deep upon the neck, no, they wish their intellectual interests to be recognised; therefore he takes in his hand a written roll, and she grasps with her left hand a diptychon, while with her right she holds to her lips the style to write on the wax tablet, as though in the next moment some brilliant idea would occur to her which she need only write down in order to be included for all time in the list of the intellectual Bluestockings. Just as in our own day many people get their portraits taken with books in their hands as though the study of literature formed their whole ordinary day’s work.

The decoration too of houses by means of statues of marble and bronze must here be briefly mentioned. It has already been stated that in the temples and public buildings numerous marble and bronze statues have been found. These discoveries can therefore be passed over here. As the most beautiful of the works of art which have been discovered in private houses may be mentioned the statue of the Dancing Faun (after which the Casa del Fauno is named) and the so-called Narcissus, found in a house of the Vico del Balcone pensile. In the former (fig. 77) the artist has represented a comrade of the circle of Dionysos, full of Bacchic pleasure, turning in wild dance; it is a rough sensual comrade, whose half animal being is sufficiently suggested by his goat’s ears and the little tail that is just visible. The strained muscles show with what energy he gives himself up to the activity of the dance, while on the other side the unrestrained joyousness expressed in his countenance, and the freedom and ease he displays in the movement of the upper part of his body and his arms clearly reveal with what sportive agility he copes with the exertion. Almost more beautiful is the so-called Narcissus (fig. 78) a youth just outgrown the years of boyhood, over whose left shoulder hangs the skin of a goat or a doe, who however is otherwise naked except the feet which are clothed with elegant sandals. With slight movement of the arm he supports the left hand against the hip, and stretches out the right hand, while at the same time he bends his head to this side as though he were turning his attention to some distant sounds. People have chosen to see in this figure a Narcissus listening to the flattering words of Echo, but such a situation is nowhere to be found in the myth. Others suggest Dionysos playing with his panther; for this the doeskin and the wreath of ivy in the hair would be very suitable, as also the beautiful sandals; but then we should have to suppose that the figure had already in antiquity been removed from its original base and placed on a new pedestal. For the enjoyment however which the work of art affords us the name which is given it is a matter of indifference, and this enjoyment will be experienced by every one who contemplates the beautiful statuette. Also the recently found statuette of a youth, completely plated with silver, (fig. 72) which in antiquity was altered into a lampholder, and therefore has experienced some damage, deserves careful inspection on account of its beauty.

While this figure was to be employed in the house for lighting purposes, both the others seem to have had their place at the fountain of the house, with which in a certain way they were connected, in that the relation of Satyrs and similar beings to springs is a well-known one in antiquity. In other places the marble and the bronze statues are employed actually as fountain figures, so in the case of figure 79, the bronze statuette of a Cupid who exerting all his strength holds a dolphin up high, from whose mouth the water flows. As to how such statuettes were grouped with fountains and how also in small houses an attempt was made to enliven the narrow space left for the garden by the erection of all sorts of works of art, a sufficiently clear example is afforded by the little garden of the Casa di Lucrezio (fig. 76). Here on both sides of the fountain niche in which stands a Silenus as distributor of water, double Herms or busts are placed which represent Bacchus with Ariadne. Of the other figures above all let the group standing in the foreground be mentioned, a group of a Satyr extracting a thorn from Pan’s foot. A dainty motive too is that of a fountain figure (fig. 80) from the Casa del Balcone pensile. A boy whose dress falls down long over his back (in this way a support for the marble figure is obtained) stands in easy pose, while he lays his right arm on his head and stretches out the left hand with a mussel shell. From this shell trickled the water, and a more copious stream flowed from the waterpipe straight into the marble basin.

Mosaic is frequently united with sculpture in the ornamentation of fountains, for example in that of the Casa delle Fontana Grande (fig. 81). Here the fountain takes the form of a retiring arched niche, in which the water from beneath the mask of a water-god flowed out of an aperture in a broad jet over a flight of steps, while marble masks with wide opened eyes are placed on the piers of the niche.

Between the columns of the Peristyle, to judge from the wall-paintings, there were often placed also medallions hung on ribbons, the so-called _Oscilla_, now and then shaped like a _pelta_ (i. e. as the shields of Amazons are commonly represented). These are sculptured in relief on both sides. None are of course found in their original position, but a whole series of such medallions, which were found lying on the ground, is exhibited in the Naples Museum.

An entirely different class of ornament is to be found in the Atrium; here sometimes a portrait bust of the owner has been found inserted in its pedestal, which in at least one instance is plainly designated as a dedication on the part of one formerly belonging to the house. Figure 84 represents the bust of C. Cornelius Rufus, an interesting work in marble, which clearly shows how remarkably well the sculptors of the earlier Roman Empire understood how to seize and to reproduce the characteristic features of their sitter. The bust is let into a square pillar, from which, right and left, instead of arms, quadrangular stumps protrude, on which it was customary to hang wreaths as ornaments on days of commemoration. Figure 82 gives a view of the whole atrium with the bust, by which we are enabled to recognise the harmonious way in which this ornament fits into the whole surroundings. Still more striking perhaps in its effect is the bronze bust of L. Caecilius Jucundus (fig. 83:--the original is now in Naples), the Banker, in whose house was found the chest with wax tablets, of which mention has been made on another page. Here is a bronze bust which has been inserted in its marble pedestal, a dedication by the Freedman Felix to the Genius of his master (_Genio L. nostri Felix L._). Many a one who has seen the bust in the Museo Nazionale, has, at a first glance, without knowing any more about it, been led to exclaim that he might be off at once to the Exchange, so characteristically has the sculptor rendered his portrait. Friend Caecilius is certainly not handsome, so he cannot have been flattered by the artist, who has suppressed neither the broad outstanding ears, nor the great ugly wart, almost suggesting representations of Satyrs. But through the marvellous mixture of bonhomie which is stamped on his countenance and keen calculation and decision which are expressed in the closed lips and the glance of the eyes (unfortunately the pupils formerly represented by coloured smalt have fallen out) a personality has been successfully depicted which carries in itself the stamp of genuineness. Caecilius Jucundus evidently knew full well how to feather his nest, but he was no mere miser who only brooded over his treasures, no, he not only prized very highly his cheerful enjoyment of life, but he also loved gaiety and good fellowship, and in the circle of his boon-companions he was ready to take a joke, and was himself capable of enlivening conversation by many a jest.

So much for the decoration that was provided for the house by painter and sculptor. How stands it then with the household furniture?

Our rooms are filled with a quantity of furniture, numerous tables, chairs, cupboards with every possible name and object, sofas, and whatever else pertains to modern housekeeping. Compared with all this the ancient house would seem to us empty. In the first place cupboards for keeping clothes and the like are hardly to be found. To a great extent small rooms were made available for keeping movable articles by putting up shelves, but for clothes chests standing on the ground had to serve, which might be compared with our presses and trunks. They were the better suited for this purpose inasmuch as the dress consisted more of stuffs which did not assume their definite form as dress until they were put on. These trunks could at the same time be used as seats, often, as at the present day in the East, for reclining on. There were too regular seats, for the most part without backs, and like foot-stools; among them we ought particularly to mention the _bisellium_ which properly could hold two persons, but as a special honour was granted by decree of the Decurions to a single individual (fig. 85). Tables, especially show tables of costly woods, to display the ornamental tableservice may have existed, but none of these have come down to us; on the other hand marble tables, generally placed close to the impluvium (fig. 86), have in many instances been preserved. Among them are some that can be raised at pleasure. They often have feet artistically shaped, the forms of all possible fabulous beings, griffins &c. being employed as ornaments. Such tables as we are accustomed to take our meals at are no where to be seen, because the custom of the ancients was to eat while lying down. The furnishing of a triclinium was as follows:--around a central point of masonry only about a foot and a half in height, on which the table-top or tray was placed, stand three low couches abutting on one another at right angles, occasionally (in the open air) of masonry, otherwise of bronze (fig. 87), or of wood, on each of which three persons recline at meals; the fourth side is left open for the attendants. The arrangement of the couches can often still be seen by examining the mosaic floor. To one or other of the couches a still lower seat is frequently attached, probably for the children. The inner side of the _lecti_ (for that is the name of these sofas) was as a rule somewhat higher than the outer; people got upon them from the lower side, and lay with the left arm on the cushions serving as a support in such a manner that the right arm was free to take the food to the mouth. The tables of masonry were generally without ornament, since they were covered by the tray with food; once only has an ornament been found in this position at Pompeii, a mosaic representing a death’s head, a motive borrowed no doubt from the Egypto-Alexandrian custom of inviting people to brighter enjoyment of life by allusion to its fleeting nature and the nearness of death. When towards the beginning of the Empire round tables (_orbes_) came more generally into use in place of square ones, the three couches arranged at right angles around the table had naturally to be united in a single semicircular sofa corresponding to the circular shape now adopted for the table. Such a semicircular sofa received the name _Sigma_ or _Stibadium_ on account of its resemblance to the Greek letter C. This style must--to judge from wall-paintings--have been usual in Pompeii, yet we are unable to point it out among the existing remains in the rooms. (Fig. 88 is from a wall-painting; this gives also the conversation of the guests at table: _facitis vobis suaviter_, you are having a good time, says one; another, _ego canto_, I sing; _est ita_, _valeas_, so it is, good luck to you, says the third.)

Of tripods, which in the ancient house formed part of the necessary furniture, beautiful shapes have come down to us, (cf. fig. 91). Tables then and chairs, chests and couches, with these the house furniture is pretty well exhausted; but one must include with them the movable stoves by which in winter some measure of warmth could be secured. Stoves, as we know them were non-existent in antiquity, as even now in the greatest part of Italy. If it became cold, a brazier of charcoal was brought, as at the present day, at which people warmed themselves. (The best example of such a brazier is that dedicated by one Vaccula in the Baths, which may be seen in figure 48 behind the railing.) Richer folk had for this purpose also a special stove which could be carried from one room to another, as now in Paris, see figure 92. The question of heating, as that of chimneys in the kitchen, is for us northeners one of great importance, which however for the South plays no great part, as one can see any day at the present time. Apart from the resorts of foreigners, in which on practical grounds full allowance is made for the ideas and usages of people belonging to northern countries, the Italy of to-day remains for the most part at the stand point of antiquity. There are no stoves and as few chimneys, because the fuel used is almost exclusively charcoal, which kindled in the open air continues to glow without requiring a special exit for smoke. And if there is any smoke, it has to find its way where it pleases. This is the origin of the name _Atrium_, because everything became black (_ater_) through smoke. However we must not omit to mention that in some Pompeian kitchens a wide pipe or channel is provided, through which an escape to the street is allowed to any smoke that there may be, subject to its own good will. To suppose any such thing as an actual chimney (apart of course from baking ovens) would be mere wild imagining, there was in fact absolutely no necessity for such a thing.

We must consider charcoal as the fuel also for various utensils which served for the preparation of warm drinks, the so-called _Calda_, or for keeping food warm, and which certainly had their place not in the kitchen but in the diningroom or other apartments. One of such utensils (fig. 90) is garnished after the fashion of a fortress with towers at the four angles and battlements on the surrounding wall; while the interior served for the reception of charcoal and for keeping food warm, the surrounding wall and towers were used for water, which at pleasure could be drawn off by a tap. On the other hand the vase represented in figure 93 is near akin to the Russian samovar; here a wide pipe is introduced into the body of the vessel, which could be filled with glowing charcoal in order to heat the liquid contained in the vessel. Or on the contrary if the liquid was to be cooled, all that was necessary was to fill the pipe with snow. Of course owing to the open pipe the liquid could in neither case be poured out, but had to be ladled out. For the preparation of warm drink as well as for the heating of food the apparatus represented in figure 94 was also undoubtedly employed. In this instance a high cask-like vessel is connected with a cylindrical one having a spout, while the enclosed space holds charcoal.

The question of lighting also merits some brief consideration. It has already been stated that the apartments on the principal floor had scarcely ever any direct light from the street, but received indirect light from the atrium or the peristyle. We are not however on this account to imagine them to have been dark; the sun’s power in the South is so great that even in the case of indirect light a very considerable brightness is attained; if the door-spaces were closed by wooden doors, or by curtains, still sufficient light fell into the room through an opening introduced above the door, or the doors and curtains were so arranged that the light above was not shut out. Artificial lighting was supplied by oil lamps, which must have been employed in great numbers, to ensure sufficient brilliancy. Hence lamps, especially of course the ordinary terracotta lamps, are the most numerous of the objects found. Candelabra served to support them, of these very elegant forms have been preserved. One of the most interesting is represented in figure 96, where four lamps, each with two wicks, hang down from a pillar raised on a basis semicircular in front. The candelabra also often take the form of trees, on the boughs of which the lamps are suspended, so for example in figure 97. Besides these there are lofty candelabra which spring from a basis usually supported by the feet of an animal, and rise to a considerable height in the form of slender columns; on the top, which generally spreads out as a calyx, there usually stood only one lamp with several wicks.