Part 1

FAMOUS ART CITIES;

No. 1,

POMPEII

POMPEII

BY

RICHARD ENGELMANN

TRANSLATED BY TALFOURD ELY, M. A., F. S. A.; FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON

1904 LONDON, W. C. NEW YORK H. GREVEL & CO. CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS

LEIPZIG, E. A. SEEMANN

PRINTED BY ERNST HEDRICH NACHF., G. M. B. H., LEIPZIG

Table of Contents

Preface Index List of Illustrations

PREFACE

The present work forms the first of a series of volumes published under the general title of “_Famous Art Cities_”. The second, (by Dr. Gustav Pauli), treats of Venice; its immediate successors will deal with Florence and Nuremberg. Rome, Siena, Ravenna and Cairo will represent a continuation.

Whoever visits Pompeii for the first time will not grudge a corner beside his guide-book for a _Vademecum_ such as this, which offers the inspiration of the _Genius loci_ to the traveller of artistic tastes. As the one meets his material needs, so the other ministers to the intellectual interests of the man of education, and may, at a later time, preserve or renew in the liveliest fashion his remembrance of what he has seen.

“Vedi Napoli e poi muori”; “See Naples and die!” is a saying one often hears, a saying which means that after seeing Naples in all her beauty one has nothing on earth left to admire.

And in a certain sense this is true enough: there are but few places which in beauty of scenery can compare with the Bay of Naples. Yet a visit to Naples is not all; equally with the City of the Living, so attractive to the stranger for its life ever freshly throbbing early and late, the City of the Dead, Pompeii, deserves also thorough investigation and careful study. Whoever goes to Naples must not fail to turn his attention also to its near neighbour Pompeii. This nowadays is so easy a matter, whether one drives along the beautiful roads between smiling gardens that adorn the slopes of Vesuvius, or takes train across the lavabeds close to the sea, whose waves break on the embankment. The goal is quickly reached: there is music and refreshment in one of the hotels which are in front of the ruins; then quickly to the entrance; where we settle as to tickets and guides, and through the Porta Marina or Sea Gate we enter the ancient city.

But what is Pompeii, and why should we not leave Naples without seeing Pompeii also. Those whose memory goes far back enough remember that in April 1872 the eyes of all were turned to the neighbourhood of Naples. But this time it was not the splendour of the country that caused universal attention, and brought to the Bay of Naples countless foreigners from near and far. It was a drama of Nature at once imposing and terrible that formed the attraction for the hosts that gathered there. Vesuvius which for several years (since 1865) had never quite slumbered, showed itself once more in all its terrors, and ever more awful than before: showers of fire burst forth to a vast height from old craters and new, clouds of ashes darkened the air for miles, and filled the streets even of distant towns: immense streams of lava burst from the mountain’s flanks hurling death and destruction before them.

And yet in spite of all its terrors the eruption did not equal the one with which Vesuvius first in historic times announced itself as a volcano and covered with lava and ejected stones the three cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, to say nothing of less famous places. The desolate cone of ashes which now towers high above the ordinary surface did not exist at an earlier period; right up to the summit the mountain was clothed with woods, while on its flanks the grape ripened into costly wine (see fig. 1, a Pompeian wall-painting representing in all probability Monte di Somma before the evolution of the crater of Vesuvius). And if one enquirer or another drew some conclusion as to the volcanic nature from the depression on its summit and the fruitfulness of the neighbouring land, yet people thought it altogether extinct, and believed they had nothing to fear from it.

Then, on August 24th, A. D. 79, clouds of smoke rose suddenly from the mountain, stones were hurled forth, the heavens grew dark, so that it might well be thought night had come on, every one took to flight as he could, one got in another’s way. Whoever was out of the city hastened back into it, to rescue what he could. He who was in the city sought to reach the open country as quickly as possible. Those on shore hurried to the sea, those at sea hurried to the shore. In short there was everywhere the most terrible confusion, no one knew what was to come next. We can scarcely realise sufficiently the horrors of the situation. What in 1872 is reported of Portici and Resina and Torre del Greco, can give but a faint idea of what happened in 79 when the danger came much nearer and was far more unexpected. A description by the younger Pliny, whose uncle met his death at Stabiae in the eruption of Vesuvius, has been preserved for us, telling of what happened that day at Misenum, a place distant from Vesuvius about twenty miles in a straight line. This may be abridged as follows--“For several days vibrations of the earth had been noticed, but less fear was aroused because this is not an unusual phenomenon in Campania. On that night however they were so violent that everything seemed to be upset.”

“My mother burst into my bedroom, and I too was in the act of getting up to wake her in case she should still be asleep. It was now the seventh hour, yet it was still gloomy and dark. Since the neighbouring houses were much damaged and ready to fall, we decided to leave the city, and our example was followed by the whole of the terrorstricken inhabitants who hustled and pushed past us as we went. When we were out of the immediate neighbourhood of the houses we stopped:--there were extraordinary things to see. The vehicles which we had collected were being thrown in opposite directions, although the surface of the ground was quite level, and even stones thrust under them could not keep them in the same position. Besides, the sea appeared to retire, at least the shore was extended, and many creatures belonging to the sea were stranded on the sands. From the other side came a threatening black cloud, pierced by glittering lightning: it seemed to descend upon the earth and brood over the waters; already it had quite enveloped Capri and withdrawn Cape Misenum from our sight. When my mother saw this, she adjured me to abandon her and take to flight alone, that I might at least save my own life; I on the contrary refused to think of escaping without her, seized her hand, and compelled her to set forth. Ashes were already falling, though as yet to but a slight extent; I look behind me, thick mist is threatening in the rear and pursues us; let us, said I, while we can still see, step aside, so as not by remaining in the road to be thrown down and trampled on in the darkness by the multitude following us. Scarcely had we seated ourselves when dark night fell round us as it does in closed rooms when the light is put out. Then were heard lamentations of women, cries of children, shouts of men, some called to their parents, others to their children, others to husband or wife; some bemoaned their own fate, others that of their dear ones, some even prayed for death. Many raised their hands to the gods, still more cried that the gods no longer existed, that the last eternal night had come. Nor were there wanting those who increased existing terrors by false news, that Misenum had fallen in ruin and was in flames, which was loudly proclaimed and believed though it was not true. Gradually things became clear again; this seemed to us not the light of day, but a token of the approaching fire. Then followed again darkness and showers of ashes; had we not often stood up to shake ourselves free of the ashes we should have been covered by them and overwhelmed by their weight. At last the thick cloud little by little dispersed as if dissolved like smoke; soon it was actually day, and the sun broke forth, though overcast as it is wont to be in time of eclipse; everything seemed to our eyes altered and covered with ashes as if with snow.”

If at Misenum, at so considerable a distance from the actual point of eruption, things went on as here described, what scenes must have been enacted in Pompeii, the inhabitants of which were drawn into joint suffering in quite another way. It is commonly said that the people of Pompeii were at the time congregated together in the amphitheatre at the extreme end of the city, to witness gladiatorial contests, so that for the most part they could more easily escape. This however is a mere myth, as is proved by the ruinous condition of the amphitheatre when first discovered as well as from the history of the city. In A. D. 60 the city had been deprived by the Roman Senate of the privilege of exhibiting gladiatorial contests because such a performance had given occasion to a sanguinary struggle between the inhabitants of Pompeii and those of Nuceria who were allowed a share in the use of the amphitheatre (the scene is represented in a Pompeian wall-painting, fig. 2); and in A. D. 63 a terrible earthquake had destroyed a great number of buildings and among them the amphitheatre so that it is certain that at the time of the eruption neither gladiatorial shows nor wild beast hunts could have been held in it. Yet the greatest number of the inhabitants must have succeeded in escaping since on the basis of the skeletons found up to the present time the number of those who perished within the city can be estimated at 2,000, out of a total of 30,000 inhabitants. Many of course may have fallen a sacrifice to the eruption of Vesuvius also outside the city walls; thus for example in 1880-81 there were found the remains of such, who had met with their death to the south of the city, probably on what was then the bank of the Sarno. Those however who had fled before the storm to cellars or similar places were doomed to certain destruction, because all exit was cut off by the falling pumice-stone and ashes, others who had taken refuge in the upper rooms may still have escaped during a pause in the shower of pumice-stone. Many indeed in vain: after they had worked their way through the layer of pumice-stone they sank down exhausted and were enveloped by the ashes. But since these ashes which came down mixed with rain contained much Pozzolana earth they have taken a fixed shape around the bodies; in the course of centuries the bodies have shrunk to a few remains of bones, but the hollow impression has remained in the shape. Thus attention having been drawn to this through the frequent occurrence of similar cases, as soon as a hollow appeared in the stratum of ashes during the excavation, the opportunity has been seized and liquid plaster poured in. By this process the bodily forms of various inhabitants of Pompeii, of animals, and of inanimate objects have been preserved, casts which do not indeed exhibit the sharp outlines to which we are accustomed in those produced by artistically prepared moulds, yet which are of the highest interest to the observer as direct reminders of those terrible hours. See figures 3 and 4.

* * * * *

When the mountain had in some measure discontinued its work, the showers of stones and ashes had ceased, and the sun had appeared again, the inhabitants of Pompeii who had escaped returned to their city; but they had some trouble to find it, for it was buried beneath stones and ashes. They endeavoured as far as it was possible, to secure some salvage from the ruins; and so many a work of art, as well as most of the treasures in gold and silver, may well have been withdrawn from the protecting bosom of the earth either by their lawful owners or by unauthorised persons. A systematic excavation of the houses, however, and a reoccupation of the city were not to be thought of, the ruin was too complete for that. So much the better for us for whom in this way under the ashes from Vesuvius an ancient Roman city has been preserved in the precise condition in which it was on the twenty fourth of August A. D. 79 (apart of course from the changes which certain materials must have undergone in so long a time). It seems that the people of Pompeii settled further towards Vesuvius; the ruins of their old city so far as they appeared above the accumulated rubbish gradually collapsed, others disappeared before the plough which began to pass over the fields, and thus after a few centuries the name of Pompeii with the place which pertained to it vanished from the memory of men. So it remained throughout the whole of the Middle Ages; often enough indeed the countryfolk while tilling their fields struck against old masonry or found ancient utensils, but the isolated occurrences remained unnoticed.

More remarkable indeed is it that when the architect Domenico Fontana in the year 1594 constructed a canal to bring the water of the Sarno to Torre dell’ Annunziata, a canal which still at the present day intersects Pompeii, people were not incited to a thorough investigation by the numerous relics of antiquity that during these operations must have been cleared out of the way. It was not till the discovery of Herculaneum (1709) that men’s thoughts were directed to another city, smitten by a like fate--Pompeii--and when in 1748 peasants again struck upon masonry and other more valuable objects, then at last people began to mark the spot and to undertake more extensive excavations. Not, it is true, in a very commendable way, since it was gold and silver and the greater treasures of art that were especially sought, the excavators contented themselves with grubbing the earth, and when at most the better wall-paintings had been cut away, filling up again the excavated houses. Such for a long time was the system of excavation; even after an interest in the matter had been roused in higher quarters the work was carried on with more or less provision of labour, often only two or three workmen being employed--for many years indeed the excavations were altogether discontinued. Only the time when Naples was under the rule of France forms a glorious exception: the work was entered on with zeal: as many as six-hundred and seventy four persons with twenty six carts and seven mules were employed to remove the _lapilli_, and thus the few years 1806-1815 shew more results than the preceding period of more than half a century. With the return of the Bourbon _régime_ the old conditions of course reappeared, and it is only in modern times that an improvement in this respect has been brought about. Since Naples has become part of the Kingdom of Italy the work (and this is especially due to the energy of Giuseppe Fiorelli) has been arranged in a rational manner and vigorously pushed forward, so that the completion of the excavations may be expected within a conceivable time. Men and a great many boys are daily employed, some in excavating, others in carrying the _lapilli_ in baskets to the waggons which then are taken on a railway away from Pompeii. (See the illustration on page 1.)

While Herculaneum for the most part (only with the exception of some portions lying close to the sea, which resemble Pompeii) has been covered by a vast stream of mud to a depth of twenty metres, the mass of which hardened into tufa cannot be broken up without great trouble, so that the excavation of the city can be effected only by a process of mining, and this too with great care, on account of the city of Resina lying above it, the stratum which covers Pompeii may be called comparatively light. Whitish-grey pumice-stones, the so-called _lapilli_, of various sizes, cover the ground to the height of two to three metres; above lies a layer of volcanic ashes, which mixed with a quantity of pozzolana earth and falling with frightful torrents of rain, the usual accompaniment of volcanic eruptions, passed through the upper layers of pumice-stone, and made their way where the _lapilli_ could not fall (e. g. into the cellars). Over these lie in some places, but less abundantly, other _lapilli_ which proceeded from later eruptions of Vesuvius, and the scanty soil that in the course of centuries has developed from the ashes. All this therefore had to be removed in order to lay bare the ruins. The system and method then according to which the excavations were in earlier times conducted was in the highest degree prejudicial to the remains of the buildings; for since after once reaching the original ground level the excavators worked onwards uniformly upon that level, it necessarily followed that the upper parts of the buildings, which after the decay of the beams were supported only by the surrounding masses of pumice-stone, fell in ruin, and so always only slight remains were preserved.

In modern times on the contrary, since Fiorelli’s administration (1861), the aim has been to preserve in its original position every part of the ancient walls that is concealed under the surface. This object is attained by the excavators as they work from above carefully removing one horizontal layer after another and supporting the masonry thus brought to light until it is possible to replace the woodwork destroyed in the course of centuries by new timber of equal size. Thus they have succeeded in preserving not only a part of an upper story overhanging the street, but also others of the higher portions of the buildings altogether uninjured. In this way the parts of the city lately excavated present an appearance essentially different from that of those previously uncovered; and since too everything is left on the spot that can be left, especially pictures and mosaics, and since every effort is made to protect them against the unfavourable effects of the weather, by roofing, and coating with wax, and other means; while it is no longer the case (as it used to be) that everything is either removed to the Naples Museum, or (as also often happened) wantonly destroyed, the visitor is afforded an opportunity of forming for himself a far more truthful picture of ancient life than was possible at an earlier period. (See fig. 5, giving a view of part of the excavated city. The Street of Mercury lies before us, which reaches to the Forum. The roofs which are seen in the illustration serve to protect the wall-paintings, mosaics, &c. and are therefore almost exclusively modern.)

That the movable objects, especially those of gold, silver, bronze, and terracotta, should have been brought to the Museum is of course only reasonable and proper. Considering the various characters of the host of visitors to Pompeii, it could scarcely fail to happen that one or other article was destroyed through too rigid an examination, quite apart from the fact that among such visitors there are always some who “out of love for Antiquity” are ever ready to carry away with them some souvenir of the city. Hence it is necessary, if we would form an accurate representation of the life of the ancients, to avail ourselves of the Museo Nazionale in Naples, where all the furniture from Pompeii is preserved so far as place has not been found for it in the little museum in Pompeii itself at the Porta della Marina. Perhaps however if Italy’s financial difficulties come to an end (as they must some day) a plan will be carried out which has long been talked of, viz., that a house in Pompeii should be furnished exactly as it was ages ago, equipped with all the articles which were used in daily life, even if they have to be collected from different houses. Thus with less trouble one could form a general conception of the life of that epoch, a much more difficult task under present circumstances when one has to examine the various articles of furniture one by one in the Museum far from their original position.

These movable objects moreover are commonly to be found in the lowest layer of pumice-stone to the height of one metre; torn from their proper places by the breaking down of the roof they have necessarily assumed this position. For this reason the rooms are first of all cleared to within half a metre of the ground, and then the remainder is subjected to a thorough examination by experienced excavators. Since there are always some such rooms ready, it is possible, if distinguished visitors arrive even unexpectedly, to arrange a so-called gala excavation, such as is often mentioned in the papers. The stratum of pumice-stone only half a metre thick is simply removed, and something is sure to be found. For the most part it is objects used in daily life, utensils of bronze or terracotta, with or without their contents, also candelabra, lamps, &c. Statuettes too of bronze are not uncommonly found. These “war-preparations” are however the cause of great dangers to the buildings, the pumice-stone sucks up water like a sponge, and so never allows the walls to get quite dry, which is however the first and most important condition for their preservation.

But enough of excavations. Let us turn to the consideration of the city itself.

At first sight the city gives the impression of the greatest uniformity. Apart from size and the wealth of its former inhabitants one house seems to have been built at the same time, and adorned with the same artistic resources as another. Yet that is the result of the stucco-coating which under the Empire gradually became so fashionable that it was deemed advisable to cover everything with it. A more accurate examination however convinces us that under the stucco lie concealed the most distinct periods of building, with the help of which the gradual development of the city can be recognised.