CHAPTER XXXV.

PLATONIC REPUBLIC--ABSTRACT.

Declared theme of the Republic--Expansion and multiplication of the topics connected with it 1

Personages of the dialogue 2

Views of Kephalus about old age _ib._

Definition of Justice by Simonides--It consists in rendering to every man what is owing to him _ib._

Objections to it by Sokrates--There are cases in which it is not right to restore what is owing, or to tell the truth 3

Explanation by Polemarchus--Farther interrogations by Sokrates--Justice renders what is proper and suitable: but how? in what cases, proper? Under what circumstances is Justice useful? 4

The just man, being good for keeping property guarded, must also be good for stealing property--Analogies cited 5

Justice consists in doing good to friends, evil to enemies--But how, if a man mistakes who his friends are, and makes friends of bad men? 6

Justice consists in doing good to your friend, if really a good man: hurt to your enemy, with the like proviso. Sokrates affirms that the just man will do no hurt to any one. Definition of Simonides rejected _ib._

Thrasymachus takes up the dialogue--Repulsive portrait drawn of him 7

Violence of Thrasymachus--Subdued manner of Sokrates--Conditions of useful colloquy _ib._

Definition given by Thrasymachus--Justice is that which is advantageous to the more powerful. Comments by Sokrates. What if the powerful man mistakes his own advantage? 8

Correction by Thrasymachus--if the Ruler mistakes, he is _pro tanto_ no Ruler--The Ruler, _quâ_ Ruler--_quâ_ Craftsman--is infallible 9

Reply by Sokrates--The Ruler, _quâ_ infallible Craftsman, studies the interest of those whom he governs, and not his own interest _ib._

Thrasymachus denies this--Justice is the good of another. The just many are worse off than the unjust One, and are forced to submit to his superior strength 10

Position laid for the subsequent debate and exposition 11

Arguments of Sokrates--Injustice is a source of weakness--Every multitude must observe justice among themselves, in order to avoid perpetual quarrels. The same about any single individual: if he is unjust, he will be at war with himself, and perpetually weak _ib._

Farther argument of Sokrates--The just man is happy, the unjust man miserable--Thrasymachus is confuted and silenced. Sokrates complains that he does not yet know what Justice is _ib._

Glaukon intimates that he is not satisfied with the proof, though he agrees in the opinion expressed by Sokrates. Tripartite distribution of Good--To which of the three heads does Justice belong? 12

Glaukon undertakes to set forth the case against Sokrates, though professing not to agree with it _ib._

Pleading of Glaukon. Justice is in the nature of a compromise for all--a medium between what is best and what is worst 13

Comparison of the happiness of the just man derived from his justice alone, when others are unjust to him with that of the unjust man under parallel circumstances 14

Pleading of Adeimantus on the same side. He cites advice given by fathers to their sons, recommending just behaviour by reason of its consequences 15

Nobody recommends Justice _per se_, but only by reason of its consequences 16

Adeimantus calls upon Sokrates to recommend and enforce Justice on its own grounds, and to explain how Justice in itself benefits the mind of the just man 17

Relation of Glaukon and Adeimantus to Thrasymachus 18

Statement of the question as it stands after the speeches of Glaukon and Adeimantus. What Sokrates undertakes to prove _ib._

Position to be proved by Sokrates--Justice makes the just man happy _per se_, whatever be its results 20

Argument of Sokrates to show what Justice is--Assumed analogy between the city and the individual _ib._

Fundamental principle, to which communities of mankind owe their origin--Reciprocity of want and service between individuals--No individual can suffice to himself _ib._

Moderate equipment of a sound and healthy city--Few wants 22

Enlargement of the city--Multiplied wants and services. First origin of war and strife with neighbours--It arises out of these multiplied wants _ib._

Separate class of soldiers or Guardians. One man cannot do well more than one business. Character required in the Guardians--Mildness at home with pugnacity against enemies 23

Peculiar education necessary, musical as well as gymnastical 23

Musical education, by fictions as well as by truth. Fictions addressed to the young: the religious legends now circulating are often pernicious: censorship necessary 24

Orthodox type to be laid down: all poets are required to conform their legends to it. The Gods are causes of nothing but good: therefore they are causes of few things. Great preponderance of actual evil _ib._

The Guardians must not fear death. No terrible descriptions of Hades must be presented to them: no intense sorrow, nor violent nor sensual passion, must be recounted either of Gods or Heroes 25

Type for all narratives respecting men 26

Style of narratives. The poet must not practise variety of imitation: he must not speak in the name of bad characters _ib._

Rhythm and Melody regulated. None but simple and grave music allowed: only the Dorian and Phrygian moods, with the lyre and harp _ib._

Effect of musical training of the mind--makes youth love the Beautiful and hate the Ugly 27

Training of the body--simple and sober. No refined medical art allowed. Wounds or temporary ailments treated; but sickly frames cannot be kept alive 28

Value of Gymnastic in imparting courage to the mind--Gymnastic and Music necessary to correct each other 29

Out of the Guardians a few of the very best must be chosen as Elders or Rulers--highly educated and severely tested _ib._

Fundamental creed required to be planted in the minds of all the citizens respecting their breed and relationship 30

How is such a fiction to be accredited in the first instance? Difficulty extreme, of first beginning; but if once accredited, it will easily transmit itself by tradition 31

Guardians to reside in barracks and mess together; to have no private property or home; to be maintained by contribution from the people 32

If the Guardians fail in these precautions, and acquire private interests, the city will be ruined 32

Complete unity of the city, every man performing his own special function 33

The maintenance of the city depends upon that of the habits, character, and education of the Guardians 34

Religious legislation--Consult the Delphian Apollo _ib._

The city is now constituted as a good city--that is, wise, courageous, temperate, just. Where is its Justice? _ib._

First, where is the wisdom of the city? It resides in the few elder Rulers _ib._

Where is the Courage? In the body of Guardians or Soldiers 35

Where is the Temperance? It resides in all and each, Rulers, Guardians, and People. Superiors rule and Inferiors obey _ib._

Where is the Justice? In all and each of them also. It consists in each performing his own special function, and not meddling with the function of the others 36

Injustice arises when any one part of the city interferes with the functions of the other part, or undertakes double functions 37

Analogy of the city to the individual--Each man is tripartite, having in his mind Reason, Energy, Appetite. These three elements are distinct, and often conflicting _ib._

Reason, Energy, Appetite, in the individual--analogous to Rulers, Guardians, Craftsmen in the city. Reason is to rule Appetite. Energy assists Reason in ruling it 39

A man is just when these different parts of his mind exercise their appropriate functions without hindrance _ib._

Justice and Injustice in the mind--what health and disease are in the body 40

Original question now resumed--Does Justice make a man happy, and Injustice make him miserable, apart from all consequences? Answer--Yes _ib._

Glaukon requires farther explanation about the condition of the Guardians, in regard to sexual and family ties 41

Men and women will live together and perform the duties of Guardians alike--They will receive the same gymnastic and musical training 41

Nature does not prescribe any distribution of functions between men and women. Women are inferior to men in every thing. The best women are equal to second-best men 42

Community of life and relations between the male and female Guardians. Temporary marriages arranged by contrivance of the Elders. No separate families _ib._

Regulations about age, for procreation--Children brought up under public authority 44

Perfect communion of sentiment and interest among the Guardians--Causes of pleasure and pain the same to all, like parts of the same organism _ib._

Harmony--absence of conflicting interest--assured scale of equal comfort--consequent happiness--among the Guardians 45

In case of war both sexes will go together to battle--Rewards to distinguished warriors 46

War against Hellenic enemies to be carried on mildly--Hellens are all by nature kinsmen 47

Question--How is the scheme practicable? It is difficult, yet practicable on one condition--That philosophy and political power should come into the same hands _ib._

Characteristic marks of the philosopher--He contemplates and knows Entia or unchangeable Forms, as distinguished from fluctuating particulars or Fientia 48

Ens alone can be known--Non-Ens is unknowable. That which is midway between Ens and Non-Ens (particulars) is matter only of opinion. Ordinary men attain nothing beyond opinion 49

Particulars fluctuate: they are sometimes just or beautiful, sometimes unjust or ugly. Forms or Entia alone remain constant 50

The many cannot discern or admit the reality of Forms--Their minds are always fluctuating among particulars 51

The philosopher will be ardent for all varieties of knowledge--His excellent moral attributes--He will be trained to capacity for active life _ib._

Adeimantus does not dispute the conclusion, but remarks that it is at variance with actual facts--Existing philosophers are either worthless pretenders, or when they are good, useless 52

Sokrates admits the fact to be so--His simile of the able steersman on shipboard, among a disobedient crew 53

The uselessness of the true philosopher is the fault of the citizen, who will not invoke his guidance 54

The great qualities required to form a philosopher, become sources of perversion, under a misguiding public opinion _ib._

Mistake of supposing that such perversion arises from the Sophists. Irresistible effect of the public opinion generally, in tempting or forcing a dissenter into orthodoxy 55

The Sophists and other private teachers accept the prevalent orthodoxy, and conform their teaching to it 56

The people generally hate philosophy--A youth who aspires to it will be hated by the people, and persecuted even by his own relatives 57

The really great minds are thus driven away from the path of philosophy--which is left to empty pretenders 58

Rare cases in which a highly qualified philosopher remains--Being at variance with public opinion, he can achieve nothing, and is lucky if he can obtain safety by silence _ib._

The philosopher must have a community suitable to him, and worthy of him 59

It must be such a community as Sokrates has been describing--But means must be taken to keep up a perpetual succession of philosophers as Rulers 60

Proper manner of teaching philosophy--Not to begin at a very early age _ib._

If the multitude could once see a real, perfect, philosopher, they could not fail to love him: but this never happens 61

Course of training in the Platonic city, for imparting philosophy to the Rulers. They must be taught to ascend to the Idea of Good. But what is Good? _ib._

Ancient disputes upon this point, though every one yearns after Good. Some say Intelligence; some say Pleasure. Neither is satisfactory 62

Adeimantus asks what Sokrates says. Sokrates says that he can not answer: but he compares it by a metaphor to the Sun 63

The Idea of Good rules the ideal or intelligible world, as the Sun rules the sensible or visible world 64

To the intelligible world there are applicable two distinct modes of procedure--the Geometrical--the Dialectic. Geometrical procedure assumes diagrams 65

Dialectic procedure assumes nothing. It departs from the highest Form, and steps gradually down to the lowest, without meddling with any thing except Forms 66

Two distinct grades of Cognition--Direct or Superior--Nous--Indirect or Inferior--Dianoia _ib._

Two distinct grades of Opinion also in the Sensible World--Faith or Belief--Conjecture 67

Distinction between the philosopher and the unphilosophical public, illustrated by the simile of the Cave, and the captives imprisoned therein _ib._

Daylight of philosophy contrasted with the firelight and shadows of the Cave 69

Purpose of a philosophical training, to turn a man round from facing the bad light of the Cave to face the daylight of philosophy, and to see the eternal Forms _ib._

Those who have emerged from the Cave into full daylight amidst eternal Forms, must be forced to come down again and undertake active duties--Their reluctance to do this 70

Studies serving as introduction to philosophy--Arithmetic, its awakening power--shock to the mind by felt contradiction _ib._

Perplexity arising from the One and Many, stimulates the mind to an intellectual effort for clearing it up 72

Geometry conducts the mind to wards Universal Ens _ib._

Astronomy--how useful--not useful as now taught--must be studied by ideal figures, not by observation 73

Acoustics, in like manner--The student will be thus conducted to the highest of all studies--Dialectic: and to the region of pure intelligible Forms 74

Question by Glaukon--What is the Dialectic Power? Sokrates declares that he cannot answer with certainty, and that Glaukon could not follow him if he did 75

He answers partially--It is the consummation of all the sciences, raising the student to the contemplation of pure Forms, and especially to that of the highest Form--_Good_ _ib._

The Synoptic view peculiar to the Dialectician 76

Scale and duration of various studies for the Guardians, from youth upwards _ib._

All these studies, and this education, are common to females as well as males 77

First formation of the Platonic city--how brought about: difficult, but not impossible 78

The city thus formed will last long, but not for ever. After a certain time, it will begin to degenerate. Stages of its degeneracy _ib._

1. Timocracy and the timocratical individual. 2 Oligarchy, and the oligarchical individual 79

3. Democracy, and the democratical individual 80

4. Passage from democracy to despotism. Character of the despotic city 81

Despotic individual corresponding to that city 82

The city has thus passed by four stages, from best to worse. Question--How are Happiness and Misery apportioned among them? _ib._

Misery of the despotised city 83

Supreme Misery of the despotising individual _ib._

Conclusion--The Model city and the individual corresponding to it, are the happiest of all--That which is farthest removed from it, is the most miserable of all 84

The Just Man is happy in and through his Justice, however he may be treated by others. The Unjust Man, miserable 84

Other arguments proving the same conclusion--Pleasures of Intelligence are the best of all pleasures _ib._

They are the only pleasures completely true and pure. Comparison of pleasure and pain with neutrality. Prevalent illusions 86

Most men know nothing of true and pure pleasure. Simile of the Kosmos--Absolute height and depth 87

Nourishment of the mind partakes more of real essence than nourishment of the body--Replenishment of the mind imparts fuller pleasure than replenishment of the body 88

Comparative worthlessness of the pleasures of Appetite and Ambition, when measured against those of Intelligence 89

The Just Man will be happy from his justice--He will look only to the good order of his own mind--He will stand aloof from public affairs, in cities as now constituted 90

Tenth Book--Censure of the poets is renewed--Mischiefs of imitation generally, as deceptive--Imitation from imitation 91

Censure of Homer--He is falsely extolled as educator of the Hellenic world. He and other poets only deceive their hearers 92

The poet chiefly appeals to emotions--Mischiefs of such eloquent appeals, as disturbing the rational government of the mind _ib._

Ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry--Plato fights for philosophy, though his feelings are strongly enlisted for poetry 93

Immortality of the soul affirmed and sustained by argument--Total number of souls always the same _ib._

Recapitulation--The Just Man will be happy, both from his justice and from its consequences, both here and hereafter 94