Part 9

I shall have been seeing. We shall have been seeing. You will have been seeing. You will have been seeing. He will have been seeing. They will have been seeing.

Exercise 3

Write the four following sentences in their active and passive forms, as the sentence, _War sweeps the earth_, is written.

1. Education gives power. 2. Knowledge frees men. 3. Labor unions help the workers. 4. The people seek justice.

+Present+ _Active_ War sweeps the earth. _Passive_ The earth is swept by war.

+Past+ _Active_ War swept the earth. _Passive_ The earth was swept by war.

+Future+ _Active_ War shall sweep the earth. _Passive_ The earth shall be swept by war.

+Pres. Per.+ _Active_ War has swept the earth. _Passive_ The earth has been swept by war.

+Past Per.+ _Active_ War had swept the earth. _Passive_ The earth had been swept by war.

+Fut. Per.+ _Active_ War shall have swept the earth. _Passive_ The earth shall have been swept by war.

Exercise 4

Underscore all the verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation. Write all the time forms of the transitive verb, _lose_, as the time forms of the verb _see_ are written in the foregoing table.

When we study the animal world and try to explain to ourselves that struggle for existence which is maintained by each living being against adverse circumstances and against its enemies, we realize that the more the principles of solidarity and equality are developed in an animal society, and have become habitual to it, the more chance it has of surviving and coming triumphantly out of the struggle against hardships and foes. The more thoroughly each member of the society feels his solidarity with each other member of the society, the more completely are developed in all of them those two qualities which are the main factors of all progress; courage, on the one hand, and, on the other, free individual initiative. And, on the contrary, the more any animal society, or little group of animals, loses this feeling of solidarity--which may chance as the result of exceptional scarcity or else of exceptional plenty--the more the two other factors of progress, courage and individual initiative, diminish; in the end they disappear, and the society falls into decay and sinks before its foes. Without mutual confidence no struggle is possible; there is no courage, no initiative, no solidarity--and no victory!--_Kropotkin_.

SPELLING

LESSON 8

In pronouncing words of more than one syllable we always lay a little greater stress upon one syllable of the word; that is, that syllable receives the emphasis of the voice so as to make it more prominent than the other syllables. This is called accent, and the syllable which receives the special stress is called the accented syllable.

+Accent is the stress of the voice upon one syllable of the word.+

You will notice when you look up the pronunciation of words in your dictionary that a little mark called the accent mark is placed after the accented syllable, as for example: di-vide'.

Many words differ in meaning according to which syllable receives the accent. Our spelling lesson for this week contains a number of these words.

These words, when accented on the first syllable, are nouns; when accented on the second syllable, they are verbs.

+Monday+

Con' tract Con tract' Pro' test Pro test' Rec' ord Re cord' Im' port Im port' De' tail De tail'

+Tuesday+

Con' vert Con vert' Con' flict Con flict' Prog' ress Pro gress' Im' press Im press' Ref' use Re fuse'

+Wednesday+

Con' test Con test' Con' duct Con duct' Proj' ect Pro ject' Des' ert De sert' Ex' tract Ex tract'

+Thursday+

Con' trast Con trast' Con' sort Con sort' Reb' el Re bel' Con' script Con script' Pres' ent Pre sent'

+Friday+

Com' pound Com pound' Re' tail Re tail' Com' press Com press' Im' print Im print' Com' bine Com bine'

+Saturday+

Con' fine Con fine' Sus' pect Sus pect' Com' mune Com mune' Ex' port Ex port' In' crease In crease'

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 9

Dear Comrade:

You have been studying several weeks now in this Plain English Course and we trust you are enjoying the unfolding of the powers of expression. We have been necessarily studying rules to some extent but you have seen how these grew out of the need for expression. We have been breaking the sentence up into its different parts. First we had the names of things and now we are studying the words used to tell what these things _do_ and _are_--namely verbs. And as our life has grown complex and our powers of thinking diversified covering the whole range of time, past, present and future, we have had to invent many forms of the verb to express it all.

Now do not try to commit these facts concerning the verb to memory. You are not studying English in order to know rules. You are studying English that you may be able to say and write the things you _think_. So first of all, _think_, _think_! That is your inalienable right! Do not accept anything just by blind belief. Think it out for yourself. Study until you see the '_why_' of it all. "Independent thinking has given us the present, and we will forever continue to make tomorrow better than today. The right to think is inalienable, or a man is a machine. Thought is life or a human soul is a thing."

And do not lack the courage of your own thoughts. _You_ do not need to cringe or apologize to any man. "Our life is not an apology but a life." Dare to think and dare to express and live your thought.

Did you ever read Emerson's definition of genius? "To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men,--that is genius." Then he says, "We dismiss without notice our own thoughts, because they are ours. Tomorrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense, precisely what we have thought and felt all along and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another."

Have you not experienced this? How often we hear some one express a truth and we say to ourselves, "That is just what I have long believed but I have never dared say so." We have been so taught all our lives to depend on some outside power and discredit the power within ourselves, that we pay no attention to the thoughts that are ours for who are we that we should dare to think and perchance disagree with those who have assumed authority over us! But that is precisely what we should dare to do--to think and to do our own thinking always. Who dares place anything before a man!

So _think_ as you study these lessons and use these rules and formulas simply as means to an end, as tools to aid you in expressing these thoughts.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PARTICIPLES

+147.+ We have found that the verb has five forms, made by internal changes in the verb itself,--the present time form, the s-form, the past time form, the present participle and the past participle.

We have also found that we can express various time forms by verb phrases formed by using the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_ and _be_ with one of the verb forms. All of these forms are used as the asserting word in the sentence. So long as the verb or verb phrase forms the predicate--the word or words that assert something of the subject--it still remains a verb. But we have found that the participle forms of the verb may be used as other parts of speech while still retaining some of the qualities of the verb.

+148.+ You remember a sentence which we used when we studied participles, _Making shoes is his work_. Here we have the present participle _making_, with its object _shoes_, used as the subject of the verb _is_. Now a noun never takes an object, so _making_ in this sentence is partly a verb, partly a noun, and is called a participle, which means _partaker_.

We have studied and used two forms of participles, the present and the past participle. The present participle always ends in _ing_ and expresses action or existence in the present, or at the time mentioned in the sentence. For example, _being_, _bringing_, _working_, _seeing_, _loving_, _hating_, etc.

The past participle we found to be one of the principal parts of the verb. It expresses action or existence which is past or completed, at the time mentioned in the sentence. It is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the regular verbs and by a change in the form in irregular verbs. For example, regular verbs: _learned_ from _learn_, _defeated_ from _defeat_, _watched_ from _watch_. Irregular verbs: _taught_ from _teach_, _seen_ from _see_, _won_ from _win_.

+We have found that these participles may be used either as nouns or as adjectives.+ As for example:

The _crying_ of the child annoyed the people. The _crying_ child ran to its mother. The _coming_ of the new day will bring peace. We await the _coming_ day of peace.

PARTICIPLE PHRASES

+149.+ The present and the past participles are each single words; but we may also have participle phrases; that is, two or more words used as a participle, as for example:

His _having joined_ the strikers caused him to lose his job. The man, _having been discharged_, left the mill.

In these sentences we have the participle phrases, _having joined_ and _having been discharged_. _Having joined_ is a participle phrase used as a noun, the subject of the verb _caused_. _Having been discharged_ is a participle phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun _man_. Notice that _having joined_ is an active participle describing the action performed by the man who is referred to by the pronoun _his_. _Having been discharged_ is a passive participle expressing an action of which the subject of the sentence, _man_, is the receiver.

These are both perfect participles, expressing actions which are complete at the present time.

+150.+ We have also progressive participles expressing action which is continuing or progressing. These progressive participles are also used in both the active and the passive forms. The progressive active participle is formed by using _having been_ with the present participle, as _having been working_. The progressive passive participle is formed by using _being_ with the past participle, as for example, _being watched_, _being driven_, _being gone_, etc. So we have six participles, three active and three passive.

Note the following table:

+Active+

_Present._ Sending.

_Perfect._ Having sent.

_Progressive._ Having been sending.

+Passive+

_Past._ Sent.

_Perfect._ Having been sent.

_Progressive._ Being sent.

+These participle phrases may be used either as nouns or as adjectives.+

Exercise 1

In the following sentences mark the participles and the participle phrases. Underscore those used as _nouns_ with a single line; those used as _adjectives_ with two lines.

1. He denies having been hired by the employer. 2. Our friends, having arrived, joined us at dinner. 3. The rain, falling incessantly, kept us from going. 4. Having often seen him passing, I judged he lived near. 5. The man, being discouraged and ill, was unable to do his work well. 6. Happiness shared is happiness doubled. 7. Having finished his work, he rests at last. 8. The army, beaten but not vanquished, waited for the morrow. 9. The men, having been unemployed for months, were desperate. 10. Being prepared will not save us from war. 11. "Rest is not quitting this busy career; Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere. It's loving and serving the highest and best; It's onward, not swerving; and that is true rest."

Exercise 2

Write the six participle forms of the verbs _see_ and _teach_, and use in sentences of your own construction.

INFINITIVES

+151.+ We have found that the various forms of the participles may be used as other parts of speech. They partake of the nature of a verb and either of a noun or an adjective. Notice the following sentences:

Traveling is pleasant. Eating is necessary.

Can you think of any other way in which you could express the same thought? Do you not sometimes say,

To travel is pleasant. To eat is necessary.

We have expressed practically the same thought in these two sentences, which is expressed in the sentences above, where we used the participle. _To travel_ and _to eat_ are used as nouns, subjects of the verb _is_ just as _traveling_ and _eating_ are used as nouns, the subjects of the verb _is_.

Here we have another form of the verb used as a noun. When we use the verb in this way, we are not speaking of the _traveling_ or _eating_ as belonging to or being done by any particular person, nor do we indicate whether one person or more than one is concerned in the action. It might be anyone doing the traveling or eating, and it might be one person or a thousand. We are making a general statement of everybody in the world, so we call this form the _infinitive_.

+152.+ Infinite means _unlimited_, without limit as to persons or number. Almost every verb in the language may be used in this way, and since _to_ is generally used before the infinitive, _to_ is often called the sign of the infinitive. For example:

_To be_, or not _to be_, that is the question. _To have_ and _to hold_ is the problem. He likes _to travel_.

You note in all of these infinitives _to_ is used with the simple form of the verb.

+153.+ _To_ is generally omitted after verbs like _help_, _hear_, _bid_, _feel_, _let_, _make_, _see_ and _have_, or words of similar meaning. For example:

Help me (to) find it. He bade me (to) stay. Feel it (to) shake. Make him (to) come. Hear me (to) sing. Let us (to) go. See him (to) run. Have him (to) copy this.

+154.+ _To_ is also omitted after _need_ and _dare_ when _not_ is used.

They need to work. They need not work.

They dared to come. They dared not come.

+155.+ _To_ is sometimes omitted after prepositions:

He will do anything for his class, except (to) fight for it. He would do nothing but (to) go away.

+156.+ We have a number of different forms of the infinitive, both active and passive. Note the following table:

+Active+

_Present._ To love. _Perfect._ To have loved. _Present Prog._ To be loving. _Perfect Prog._ To have been loving.

+Passive+

_Present._ To be loved. _Perfect._ To have been loved.

+157.+ Notice that only the _present_ and _perfect_ infinitives have the _passive_ form. The progressive infinitives cannot be used in the passive. Remember also that only _incomplete_ verbs, those which require an object to receive the action, can have a passive form.

The verb _loved_, which we have used in the above table, has a passive form because it is an incomplete verb, for there must be that which is the object of our love.

+158.+ The complete verbs,--verbs which require no object,--cannot have a passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take for example the verb _dwell_. This is a complete verb which can have no passive form. You cannot dwell anything, therefore you cannot say _to be dwelt_ or _to have been dwelt_.

+So complete verbs have only the four active forms+, as follows:

+Active+

_Present._ To dwell. _Perfect._ To have dwelt. _Present Prog._ To be dwelling. _Perfect Prog._ To have been dwelling.

+159.+ Infinitives, like participles, may be used either as nouns or adjectives. When used as nouns, they are used in the various ways in which nouns are used. The infinitive may be the _subject_ of a sentence, thus:

_To hesitate_ now will be fatal. _To be defeated_ is no crime.

+160.+ The infinitive may be the _object_ or _complement_ of the verb. For example:

He wanted _to see_ you. His desire is _to learn_.

+161.+ The infinitive may be used as the object of a _preposition_; as,

He is about _to go_. They will do anything for the cause except _to live_ for it.

+162.+ The infinitive may be used as an adjective to modify a noun. For example:

He showed me the way _to go_. We must have food _to eat_ and clothes _to wear_. The question _to be decided_ is before us. Claim your right _to live_.

+163.+ The infinitive may also be used as an adverb to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective or adverb, thus:

He was forced _to go_. They are slow _to learn_. The fruit was not ripe enough _to eat_.

Note that the infinitives in these sentences may all be changed into adverb phrases. As for example in the first sentence, He was forced _to go_, the infinitive _to go_, which modifies the verb _forced_, may be changed to the adverb phrase, _into going_, thus, _He was forced into going_. In the second sentence, _They are slow to learn_, the infinitive _to learn_ may be changed into the adverb phrase _in learning_, thus, _They are slow in learning_. In the last sentence, _The fruit is not ripe enough to eat_, the infinitive _to eat_, which modifies the adverb _enough_, may be changed into the adverb phrase, _for eating_, as for example, _The fruit was not ripe enough for eating_.

+164.+ The infinitive is quite a useful form of the verb, and we will find that we use it very frequently in expressing our ideas. While it is not the asserting word in the sentence, it retains the nature of a verb and may have both an object and an adverb modifier. As for example, in the sentence:

I wish _to learn_ my lesson quickly.

_To learn_ is the infinitive, used as a noun, the object of the verb _wish_. The infinitive also has an object, to learn--_what?_ _My lesson_ is the object of the infinitive _to learn_. We also have an adverb modifier in the adverb _quickly_, which tells _how_ I wish to learn my lesson. So the infinitive retains its verb nature, in that it may have an object and it may be modified by an adverb.

Exercise 3

Notice carefully the use of the infinitives in the following sentences. Underscore all infinitives.

1. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave. 2. Teach us to think and give us courage to act. 3. Children love to be praised, but hate to be censured. 4. To obey is the creed taught the working class by the masters. 5. To be exploited has always been the fate of the workers. 6. Ferrer wrote on his prison wall, "To love a woman passionately, to have an ideal which I can serve, to have the desire to fight until I win--what more can I wish or ask?" 7. The people wish the man to be punished for the crime. 8. Primitive man found plenty of wood to burn. 9. We have learned to use coal and oil. 10. The lecture to have been given this evening has been postponed. 11. They are eager to hear the news. 12. He has failed to come. 13. We felt the house shake on its foundation. 14. Have him find the book for me. 15. To be defeated is no crime; never to have dared is the real crime. 16. The rich will do anything for the poor except to get off their backs. 17. To have slept while others fought is your shame. 18. Claim your right to do, to dream and to dare.

Exercise 4

Write sentences containing the six infinitive forms of the verb _obey_.

DON'TS FOR INFINITIVES

+165.+ +Don't split your infinitives.+ Keep the _to_ and the infinitive together as much as possible. Don't say, _They intended to never come back_. Say rather, _They intended never to come back_. Sometimes, however, the meaning can be more aptly expressed by placing the adverb modifier between the _to_ and the infinitive, as for example:

To almost succeed is not enough. It will be found to far exceed our expectations.

In these sentences the adverbs _almost_ and _far_ express our meaning more closely if they are placed between the _to_ and the infinitive. Ordinarily, however, do not split your infinitives, but place the adverb modifier either before or after the infinitive.

+166.+ +Don't use _to_ by itself without the rest of the infinitive.+ Don't say, _Do as I tell you to_. Say instead, _Do as I tell you to do_; or, _Do as I tell you_. Don't say, _He deceived us once and he is likely to again_. Say rather, _He deceived us once and he is likely to deceive us again_, or _to do so again_.

+167.+ +Don't use _and_ for _to_. Don't say, _Try and go if you can_. Say instead, _Try to go if you can_.

Correct the following sentences:

We ought to bravely fight for our rights. I will do all my employer tells me to. We shall try and get our lessons. I ought to at least help my comrades but I am afraid to.

Exercise 5

Study carefully the infinitives in the following quotation. Notice which are active and which are passive infinitives.

The twenty thousand men prematurely slain on a field of battle, mean, to the women of their race, twenty thousand human creatures _to be borne_ within them for months, _to be given_ birth to in anguish, _to be fed_ from their breasts and _to be reared_ with toil, if the members of the tribe and the strength of the nation are _to be maintained_. In nations continually at war, incessant and unbroken child-bearing is by war imposed on all women if the state is _to survive_; and whenever war occurs, if numbers are _to be maintained_, there must be an increased child-bearing and rearing. This throws upon woman, as woman, a war tax, compared with which all that the male expends in military preparations is comparatively light.

It is especially in the domain of war that we, the bearers of men's bodies, who supply its most valuable munition, who, not amid the clamor and ardor of battle, but singly, and alone, with a three-in-the-morning courage, shed our blood and face death that the battle-field might have its food, a food more precious to us than our heart's blood; it is we, especially, who, in the domain of war, have our word _to say_, a word no man can say for us. It is our intention _to enter_ into the domain of war and _to labor_ there till in the course of generations we have extinguished it.--_Olive Schreiner_.

Exercise 6

Mark the participles and infinitives.

Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! Bright and yellow, hard and cold, Molten, graven, hammer'd and roll'd; Heavy to get, and light to hold; Hoarded, barter'd, bought, and sold, Stolen, borrow'd, squander'd, doled: Spurn'd by the young, but hugg'd by the old To the very verge of the churchyard mould; Price of many a crime untold: Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! Good or bad a thousand-fold! How widely its agencies vary-- To save--to ruin--to curse--to bless-- As even its minted coins express, Now stamp'd with the image of Good Queen Bess, And now of a bloody Mary.--_Thos. Hood_.

SPELLING

LESSON 9

In our English lessons, we have been studying the division of words into parts of speech. We have been studying them as we use them in expressing our thoughts but we may study them in other ways also. We may study them as words alone.

Studied in this way we find that we have simple, compound and derivative words. For example, _man_, _man-slaughter_, _manly_. _Man_ is a simple word. _Man-slaughter_ is a compound word formed of two simple words. _Manly_ is a derivative word derived from _man_.

When a compound word is first formed, it is usually written with a hyphen; but after the word has been used awhile the hyphen is often dropped and the two parts are written together as a simple word.

+A simple word is a single word which cannot be divided into other words without changing its meaning.+

+A compound word is composed of two or more simple words into which it may be divided, each retaining its own meaning.+