Part 28

1. In that moment _when he saw the light_ he joined our cause. 2. Other men are lenses _through which we read our own minds_. 3. This is perhaps the reason _why we are unable to agree_. 4. He _that loveth_ maketh his own the grandeur _that he loves_. 5. The other terror _that scares us from self-trust_ is our consistency. 6. There is a popular fable of a sot _who was picked up dead drunk in the street, carried to the Duke's house, washed and dressed and laid in the Duke's bed, and, on his waking, treated with all ceremony like a duke and assured that he had been insane_. 7. He _who would gather immortal palms_ must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. 8. Superstition, _who is the mother of fear and faith_, still rules many people. 9. We are looking for the time _when the useful shall be the honorable_. 10. He _who enslaves another_ cannot be free. 11. He _who attacks the right_ assaults himself. 12. The force _that is in every atom and every star, in everything that grows and thinks, that hopes and suffers_, is the only possible God. 13. He _who adds to the sum of human misery_ is a blasphemer. 14. The grandest ambition _that can enter the soul_ is the desire to know the truth.

ADVERB CLAUSES

+447.+ The third kind of clause which we may use in a complex sentence is the adverb clause.

+An adverb clause is a clause which takes the place of an adverb.+ It may modify a _verb_, an _adjective_, or an _adverb_. We studied adverb clauses in lesson 21 and we found eight classes of adverb clauses, expressing _time_, _place_, _cause_ or _reason_, _manner_, _comparison_, _condition_, _purpose_ and _result_. For example:

1. +Adverb clause of time:+ No man is truly free _until all are free_.

2. +Adverb clause of place:+ We must live _where we can find work_.

3. +Adverb clause expressing cause or reason:+ We lost the strike _because the men were not class-conscious_.

4. +Adverb clause of manner:+ We must work _as if the result depended entirely upon us_.

5. +Adverb clause of comparison:+ The working class must become more class-conscious _than it is today_.

6. +Adverb clause of condition:+ We will continue to be exploited _if we do not demand our rights_.

7. +Adverb clause expressing purpose:+ We must read the labor press _in order that we may know the truth concerning conditions_.

8. +Adverb clause expressing result:+ The battle raged so furiously _that thousands were slain_.

ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES

+448.+ To analyze a complex sentence; that is, to break it up into its different parts--treat the sentence first as a whole, then find the simple subject and the simple predicate. If a noun clause is the subject, treat it first as a noun. Treat adjective clauses as adjectives modifying certain words and the adverb clauses as adverbs modifying certain words.

In other words, analyze the sentence first as a simple sentence with dependent clauses considered as modifying words; then analyze each dependent clause as though it were a simple sentence. Make an outline like the following and use it in your analysis of the sentence. Let us take this sentence and analyze it:

Conscious solidarity in the ranks would give the working class of the world, now, in our day, the freedom which they seek.

+Simple subject+, _solidarity_.

+Simple predicate+, _would give_.

Modifiers of the subject:

Adjective, _conscious_. Adjective phrase, _in the ranks_. Adjective clause, (_none_).

+Complete subject+, _Conscious solidarity in the ranks_.

Modifiers of the predicate:

Adverb, _now_. Adverb phrase, _in our day_. Adverb clause, (_none_).

+Direct object+, _freedom_.

Modifiers of direct object:

Adjective, _the_. Adjective phrase, (_none_). Adjective clause, _which they seek_,

+Indirect object+, _class_.

Modifiers of indirect object:

Adjectives, _the_, _working_. Adjective phrase, _of the world_. Adjective clause, (_none_).

+Complete predicate+, _would give the working class of the world, now, in our day, the freedom which they seek_.

Analyze the dependent clause, _which they seek_, just as a principal clause is analyzed. _They_ is the simple subject, _seek_ is the simple predicate, _which_ is the direct object. The complete predicate is _seek which_.

+449.+ Notice that the first two sentences given in the exercise below are imperative sentences,--the subject, the pronoun _you_, being omitted so that the entire sentence is the complete predicate. As for example: _Take the place which belongs to you_. The omitted subject is the pronoun _you_. _Take the place which belongs to you_ is the complete predicate, made up of the simple predicate _take_; its object, the noun _place_; the adjective _the_, and the adjective clause, _which belongs to you_, both of which modify the noun _place_.

Exercise 6

Using the outline given above, analyze the following complex sentences.

1. Take the place which belongs to you. 2. Let us believe that brave deeds will never die. 3. The orator knows that the greatest ideas should be expressed in the simplest words. 4. Gratitude is the fairest flower that sheds its perfume in the human heart. 5. Children should be taught that it is their duty to think for themselves. 6. We will be slaves as long as we are ignorant. 7. We must teach our fellow men that honor comes from within. 8. Cause and effect cannot be severed for the effect already blooms in the cause. 9. Men measure their esteem of each other by what each has. 10. Our esteem should be measured by what each is. 11. What I must do is all that concerns me. 12. The great man is he who, in the midst of the crowd, keeps the independence of solitude. 13. The only right is what is after my constitution. 14. Whoso would be a man must be a non-conformist. 15. They who build on ideas build for eternity.

Exercise 7

We have studied all the parts of speech, and now our work is to combine these parts for the expression of thought. It will be good practice and very helpful to us to mark these different parts of speech in our reading. This helps us to grow familiar with their use. It also helps us to add words to our vocabulary and to learn how to use them correctly. In the following quotation, mark underneath each word, the name of every part of speech. Use _n._ for noun, _v._ for verb, _pro._ for pronoun, _adv._ for adverb, _adj._ for adjective, _p._ for preposition and _c._ for conjunction. Write _v. p._ under the verb phrases. For example:

+The workers of the world do not have, _adj._ _n._ _p._ _adj._ _n._ _v.p._ _adv._ _v.p._

under this system, very many opportunities _p._ _adj._ _n._ _adv._ _adj._ _n._

for rest and pleasure for themselves.+ _p._ _n._ _c._ _n._ _p._ _pro._

Mark in this manner every part of speech in the following quotation:

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.

Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guildmaster and journeyman,--in a word, oppressor and oppressed,--stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.

In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the middle ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.

The modern bourgeois society, that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society, has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones.

--_Communist Manifesto_.

Exercise 8

In the following quotation, mark all of the clauses and determine whether they are dependent or independent clauses. If they are dependent clauses, determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. Mark all the sentences and tell whether they are simple or complex.

I see in the near future a crisis approaching that unnerves me, and causes me to tremble for the safety of my country. As a result of war, corporations have been enthroned, and an era of corruption in high places will follow. The money power of the country will endeavor to prolong its reign by working upon the prejudices of the people, until all the wealth is aggregated in a few hands, and the republic is destroyed. I feel at this moment more anxiety for the safety of our country than ever before, even in the midst of war. God grant that my forebodings may be groundless. Monarchy itself is sometimes hinted at as a refuge from the power of the people. In my present position I could scarcely be justified were I to omit to raise a warning voice against the approach of a returning despotism.... It is assumed that labor is available only in connection with capital; that nobody labors unless somebody else, owning capital, somehow, by the use of it, induces him to labor. Labor is prior to and independent of capital. Capital is only the fruit of labor, and could not have existed if labor had not first existed. Labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the higher consideration. I bid the laboring people beware of surrendering the power which they possess, and which, if surrendered, will surely be used to shut the door of advancement for such as they, and fix new disabilities and burdens upon them until all of liberty shall be lost.

* * * * *

In the early days of our race the Almighty said to the first of mankind, "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread," and since then, if we except the light and air of Heaven, no good thing has been or can be enjoyed by us without first having cost labor. And inasmuch as most good things have been produced by labor, it follows that all such things belong of right to those whose labor has produced them. But it has so happened, in all ages of the world, that some have labored and others have without labor enjoyed a large portion of the fruits. This is wrong, and should not continue. To secure to each laborer the whole product of his labor, as nearly as possible, is a worthy object of any government.

* * * * *

It seems strange that any man should dare to ask a just God's assistance in wringing bread from the sweat of other men's faces.

* * * * *

This country, with its institutions, belongs to the people who inhabit it.

--_Lincoln_.

Exercise 9

In the following poem find all of the assertive, interrogative and imperative sentences. Mark all of the simple sentences and all of the complex sentences. Mark all of the dependent clauses and determine whether each is used as a noun, adjective or adverb clause. The verbs and the verb phrases are in italics.

_Shall_ you _complain_ who _feed_ the world, Who _clothe_ the world, Who _house_ the world? _Shall_ you _complain_ who _are_ the world, Of what the world _may do_? As from this hour you _are_ the power, The world _must follow_ you.

The world's life _hangs_ on your right hand, Your strong right hand, Your skilled right hand; You _hold_ the whole world in your hand; _See_ to it what you _do_! For dark or light or wrong or right, The world _is made_ by you.

Then _rise_ as you never _rose_ before, Nor _hoped_ before, Nor _dared_ before; And _show_ as never _was shown_ before The power that _lies_ in you. _Stand_ all as one; _see_ justice done; _Believe_ and _dare_ and _do_.

--_Charlotte Perkins Gilman_.

SPELLING

LESSON 26

In our last lesson we had examples of words in which the _s_ had the soft sound, and also of words in which the _s_ had the sound of _z_. In some English words, it is difficult to determine which sound to use. There are a number of words in English beginning with _dis_. In a few of the words, the _s_ has the sound of _z_, and in other words it has the sound of _s_. There are only a few words which are pronounced with the _diz_ sound. _Discern_, _dismal_ and _dissolve_ are always pronounced with the _diz_ sound. _Disease_ and _disaster_ are pronounced both ways. Some dictionaries give the _diz_ sound and some give the _dis_ sound.

The spelling lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains a number of words beginning with _dis_. Be sure of the pronunciation. Run through the words in the dictionary beginning with the _dis_ sound and mark those in which the _dis_ has the sound of _diz_.

We have also a number of words in the English language which end in _ise_ or _ize_, and we are often confused to know which ending to use. There is a rule, which has very few exceptions, which covers the use of _ise_ and _ize_. Words should be spelled with the _ize_ ending when the _ize_ can be cut off, and the word that is left can be used alone. For example; _author_, _authorize_. In this word you can cut off the _ize_ and the word _author_ can be used alone. But in the word _exercise_, if you cut off the _ise_, the remaining portion cannot be used alone.

_Recognize_ and _criticise_ are exceptions to this rule. When used as a suffix added to a noun or adjective to form a verb, _ize_ is the proper ending; as _theory_, _theorize_, _civil_, _civilize_, etc. Final _e_ or _y_ is dropped before _ize_, as in the words _memorize_, _sterilize_, etc.

The spelling lesson for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains a number of common words ending with _ize_ or _ise_. Study carefully this list and add as many words to it as you can.

+Monday+

Disappear Distress Discern Disburse Discipline

+Tuesday+

Discount Discredit Distribute Dismal Disseminate

+Wednesday+

Disguise Distance Dissolve Discontent Disposition

+Thursday+

Franchise Civilize Surprise Organize Compromise

+Friday+

Monopolize Revise Legalize Enterprise Capitalize

+Saturday+

Memorize Advertise Theorize Comprise Systematize

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 27

Dear Comrade:

Ingersoll said: "Words are the garments of thought and the robes of ideas." This is a beautiful and poetic way of expressing the relationship between words and thoughts. Words are really the body which we give to our thoughts. Until they are clothed in words, our thoughts are only ghosts of ideas. Other people cannot see or come into contact with them, and they can have but little influence upon the world.

Without thought, no language is possible. It is equally true that without language, no growth of thought is possible. It is futile to try to determine which is first, language or thought. The two are entirely necessary to each other and make possible social and individual development.

Every time that you add a word to your vocabulary, you have added to your mental equipment. You have also added greatly to your power of enjoyment. Through these words you will come into a new relationship to your fellow men. Each new word enlarges the circle of your acquaintance. A knowledge of language brings us into a circle of wonderful friends. When we have learned to read we need never more be lonely. Some one has written in a book somewhere just the thing we are hungry for at this moment.

In the pages of a book we can meet and talk with the great souls who have written in these pages their life's experience. No matter what mood you are in, you can find a book to suit that mood. No matter what your need, there is a book which meets that need. Form the habit of reading and you will find it a wonderful source of pleasure and of profit.

Nor do we need to be barred because of our lack of educational advantages in our youth. Buckle, the author of the greatest history that has ever been written, left school at the age of fourteen, and it is said that at that age, except a smattering of mathematics, he knew only how to read; but when he died at the age of forty, this man, who did not know his letters when he was eight years old, could read and write seven languages and was familiar with ten or twelve more. He had written a wonderful book and had become a teacher of teachers. Engraven upon his marble altar tomb is the following couplet:

"The written word remains long after the writer. The writer is resting under the earth, but his words endure."

Good books are so cheap nowadays that they are within the reach of every one of us. Let us not be content to live in the narrow world of work and worry. Let us forget the struggle occasionally in the reading of books, and let us prepare ourselves, by reading and studying, for the battle for the emancipation of the workers of the world.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES

+450.+ +A simple sentence is a sentence which makes a single assertion, question or command.+

The simple sentence contains only words and phrases.

+451.+ +A complex sentence is one which contains a principal statement and one or more modifying statements.+

The statements made in addition to the principal statement are made in dependent clauses. The complex sentence has only one main clause and one or more dependent clauses.

+452.+ +A compound sentence is one which contains two or more independent clauses.+

These compound sentences may contain any number of dependent clauses but they must always have at least two independent or principal clauses. These principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for the principal clauses in a compound sentence are always of equal rank or order.

Exercise 1

Review the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and notice which conjunctions are used to unite principal clauses into single sentences. Use these co-ordinate conjunctions to unite the following pairs of simple sentences into compound sentences. For example:

The sun rises _and_ the day dawns. The men work _but_ the boys play.

The sun rises. The day dawns.

He studies diligently. He learns rapidly.

He came early. He could not stay.

The weather is cold. The plants are not growing.

The men work. The boys play.

The day is cold. The wind is blowing.

Take the above sentences and use subordinate instead of co-ordinate conjunctions, and make complex sentences instead of compound out of each pair of simple sentences. For example:

_When_ the sun rises, the day dawns. The men work _while_ the boys play.

KINDS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES

+453.+ +Compound sentences may be made up of two simple sentences.+

Rewrite the following compound sentences, making of each sentence two simple sentences:

The birds are singing and spring is here. He believes in war but his brother is against it. We must arouse ourselves or we shall be involved. He will not study nor will he allow any one else to study.

+454.+ +A compound sentence may be made up of a simple sentence and a complex sentence, joined by a co-ordinate conjunction.+ For example:

John goes to school, but Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother.

This compound sentence is made up of the simple sentence, _John goes to school_, and the complex sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother_.

+455.+ +Both parts of the compound sentence may be complex; that is, both principal clauses in a compound sentence may contain dependent clauses.+ For example:

John goes to school where his brother goes, but Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother.

This compound sentence is made up of two complex sentences. The sentence, _John goes to school where his brother goes_, is complex because it contains the dependent clause, _where his brother goes_; the sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother_, is complex because it contains the dependent clause, _in order that she may help her mother_.

Exercise 2

Read carefully the following sentences, determine which are simple sentences, which are complex and which are compound.

1. When the state is corrupt, then the laws are most multiplied. 2. To teach the alphabet is to inaugurate revolution. 3. Freedom degenerates unless it has to struggle in its own defense. 4. The destroyers have always been honored. 5. Liberty of thought is a mockery if liberty of speech is denied. 6. Where slavery is, there liberty cannot be; and where liberty is, there slavery cannot be. 7. All our greatness was born of liberty and we cannot strangle the mother without destroying her children. 8. In the twentieth century, war will be dead, but man will live. 9. The abuse of free speech dies in a day, but the denial entombs the hope of the race.

SENTENCE ANALYSIS

+456.+ There is no more important part of the study of English than the analysis of sentences. The very best result that can come to one from the study of grammar is the logical habit of mind. The effort to analyze a difficult passage gives us a fuller appreciation of its meaning. This cultivates in us accuracy, both of thought and of expression. So, spend as much time as you can on the analysis of sentences.

The subject and the predicate are the very body of the sentence, upon which all the rest of the sentence is hung. The other parts of the sentence are but the drapery and the garments which clothe the body of the sentence. Hence, the most important thing in sentence analysis is to be able to discover the _subject_ and _predicate_.

In the expression of a thought, there are always two important essentials, that about which something is said,--which constitutes the subject,--and that which is said about the subject, which constitutes the predicate.

There may be a number of modifying words, phrases or subordinate clauses, but there is always a main clause which contains a simple subject and a simple predicate. Find these first, and you can then fit the modifying words and phrases and clauses into their proper places.

+457.+ Let us take for study and analysis the following paragraph from Jack London:

Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not diminished since the day of the cave-man. It has increased a thousand-fold. Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been made. Why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the cave-man lived?

Let us take the first sentence out of this paragraph and analyze it. _Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not diminished since the day of the cave-man._ What is the main word in this sentence--the word about which the entire statement is made? Clearly it is the word _efficiency_. _Efficiency_ is the noun which is the subject of the sentence.

Then you might ask _what sort of_ efficiency and _whose_ efficiency? What sort of efficiency is explained by the adjective phrase, _for food-getting and shelter-getting_. Whose efficiency is explained by the possessive noun, _man's_. Therefore, the complete subject is, _Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting_.

Now we are ready to consider the predicate. What has efficiency done? It _has not diminished_. _Has diminished_ is the verb phrase, which is the simple predicate of this sentence. It is modified by the adverb _not_, so we have _Man's efficiency has not diminished_. Then we might ask, _when_ has it not diminished? And this is answered by the phrase, _since the day of the cave-man_. So we have our complete predicate, _Has not diminished since the day of the cave-man_.