Part 24

(a) Surprise or wonder; as, _Oh_, _Aha_, _What_. (b) Pleasure, joy, or exaltation; as, _Hurrah_, _Ha, Ha_. (c) Pain, sadness or sorrow; as, _Alas_, _Alack_. (d) Contempt or disgust; as _Fie_, _Fudge_, _Ugh_, _Pshaw_.

2. +Words used instead of a question+; as, _Eh?_ _Hey?_

3. +Words used instead of a command+; as:

(a) To call attention; as, _Hello_, _Ahoy_, _Whoa_. (b) To express silence; as, _Shh_, _Hush_, _Hist_. (c) To direct or drive out, etc., as, _Whoa_, _Gee_, _Haw_, _Scat_.

4. +Words used to imitate sounds made by animals, machines, etc.+, as, _Bow-wow_, _Ding-dong_, _Bang_, _Rub-a-dub_.

When we wish to imitate noises or sounds made by animals, machines, etc., in writing, we spell out the words as nearly as we can, just as we write _ding-dong_ to represent the sound of the bell or _tick-tock_ to indicate the ticking of a clock.

Note that a number of our verbs and nouns have been formed from imitating the sound which these nouns or verbs describe or express, as for instance, _crash_, _roar_, _buzz_, _hush_, _groan_, _bang_, _puff_, etc.

Exercise 1

Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Which express surprise? Which joy? Which sorrow? Which disgust?

1. Alas! We shall never meet again. 2. Bravo! You have done well. 3. Pshaw! Is that the best you can do? 4. Ship ahoy! All hands on deck. 5. Hello! When did you come? 6. Hurrah! We have won the victory. 7. Alas, alack! Those days will never come again. 8. Hist! You must be as still as mice.

Exercise 2

Write sentences using an interjection to express: 1. Joy. 2. Surprise. 3. Pain. 4. Sorrow. 5. Disgust. 6. To ask a question. 7. To call attention. 8. To silence. 9. To direct. 10. To imitate the sound made by an animal. 11. By a machine.

EXCLAMATORY WORDS

+390.+ Interjections express only emotion or feeling. They do not express ideas. However, we have a number of words which are used somewhat as interjections are used, which we may class as exclamatory words, but they express more than interjections, for they express ideas as well as emotions; but, like interjections, they are used independently and have no part in the construction of the sentence.

+391.+ Many ordinary words and phrases are used in this way as exclamations. When they are so used they have no place in the construction of the sentence; that is, they do not depend upon the sentence in which they are used, in any way. A noun used in this way is not used as the subject or the object, but simply as an exclamation.

For example; the noun _nonsense_ may be used as an interjection, as in the sentence; _Nonsense! I do not believe a word of it_. In this sentence, _nonsense_ is a noun used as an interjection and plays no part in the sentence, either as subject or object, but is an independent construction. There are a number of words used in this way:

1. Nouns and pronouns, as _fire_, _mercy_, _shame_, _nonsense_, _the idea_, _what_.

2. Verbs like, _help_, _look_, _see_, _listen_, _hark_, _behold_, _begone_.

3. Adjectives like, _good_, _well_, _brave_, _welcome_, _strange_.

4. Adverbs like, _out_, _indeed_, _how_, _why_, _back_, _forward_.

5. Prepositions like, _on_, _up_, _down_.

6. Phrases like, _Oh dear_, _dear me_, _good bye_.

Words and phrases such as these, used as exclamations, are not true interjections, for they express a little more than feeling. They express an idea which, in our haste, we do not completely express. The other words necessary to the expression of the idea are omitted because of the stress of emotion. For example:

Silence! I will hear no more.

In this sentence it is understood that we mean, _Let us have silence, I will hear no more_. But in the stress of our emotion, we have omitted the words, _Let us have_.

If we say, _Good! that will do splendidly_, you know that we mean, _That is good_, we have simply omitted _That is_, which is necessary to complete the sentence. Sometimes when we are greatly excited we abandon our sentence construction altogether and use only the most important words. For example:

A sail! a sail!

This is not a sentence, for it does not contain a verb, yet we know that what was meant was, _I see a sail, I see a sail_.

Exercise 3

Write sentences using the words given in the foregoing list as exclamatory words, and add as many more to the list as you can think of.

YES AND NO

+392.+ The words _yes_ and _no_, which we use in reply to questions were originally adverbs, but we no longer use them as adverbs. We no longer combine them with other words as modifying or limiting words, but use them independently. They are in themselves complete answers. Thus, if you ask me the question, _Will you come?_ I may say _Yes_, meaning, _I will come_; or, _No_, meaning, _I will not come_.

The responsives _yes_ and _no_ thus stand for whole sentences, so they are really independent words. We may use them in connection with other sentences. For example; I may say, _Yes, I will come_, or _No, I will not come_. Used in this way, they still retain an independent construction in the sentence. We call them responsives because they are used in response to questions.

OTHER INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS

+393.+ Other words may be used in an independent construction in sentences, without depending upon the sentence in which they are used or without having the sentences depend upon them, such as:

1. +A word used in address.+ For example:

Mr. President, I move that a committee be now appointed. Fellow Workers, I rise to address you.

In these sentences, _Mr. President_ and _Fellow Workers_ are nouns used independently; that is, they are neither the subject of the sentence nor used as object or predicate complement. They are independent of all other words in the sentence.

The most common use of words used independently in direct address occurs with imperative sentences. For example:

_Comrades_, rouse yourselves. _Men_, strike for freedom.

2. +Exclamatory expressions.+ These are nouns used in the manner in which we have already discussed, as in the sentence:

_Nonsense!_ I do not believe a word of it. Alas! poor _Yorick_! I knew him well.

3. +Words and phrases used parenthetically+, as for example:

_By the way_, I met a friend of yours today. We cannot, _however_, join you at once. He called, _it seems_, while we were gone.

In these sentences such words as, _however_, and such phrases as, _by the way_, and, _it seems_, are used independently,--in parenthesis, as it were; that is, they are just thrown into the sentences in such a way that they do not modify or depend upon any other word in the sentence. When we analyze our sentences, these independent words are not considered as elements of the sentences in which they are used. It is sufficient to say that they are independent words.

4. +Conjunctions used as introductory words.+ We have noted the use of conjunctions like the co-ordinates _and_, _but_, etc., and the subordinates _because_, _in order that_, _so_, _for_, _wherefore_, _how_, _whether_, etc., which are used to introduce sentences and connect them in thought with sentences and paragraphs which have gone before.

INTRODUCTORY WORDS

+394.+ +We have a number of words which we use to introduce our sentences.+ They are such words as, _so_, _well_ and _why_. These are ordinarily adverbs, but when they are used merely to introduce a sentence they retain little of their adverbial force. For example:

_So_, that is your only excuse. _Well_, I cannot understand why you should accept it. _Why_, that is no reason at all.

In these sentences, _so_, _well_ and _why_ do not modify any of the words in the sentences, but are used merely to introduce the sentences. They serve in a measure to connect them with something which has gone before.

+395.+ +The adverb _there_ is also used as an introductory word.+ When it is used in this manner, it loses its adverbial force. _There_, as ordinarily used, is an adverb of place, but it is often used to introduce a sentence. For example: _There is some mistake about it_. In this sentence _there_ is not used as an adverb, but it is used simply as an introductory word. It is used to introduce a sentence in which the verb comes before the real subject. _Mistake_ is the real subject of the verb is, and _there_ is used simply as the introductory word.

+396.+ +The indefinite pronoun _it_ is also used as an introductory word+, to introduce a sentence in much the same manner as _there_. The real subject of the verb occurs later in the sentence. For example:

It is best to know the truth.

This could be written, _To know the truth is best_, and the entire meaning of the sentence would be conveyed.

+397.+ +Adverbs of mode.+ You remember in our study of adverbs, we had certain adverbs which were called adverbs of mode. These are used to modify the entire sentence. They express the feeling in which the entire sentence is uttered. Adverbs of mode may be regarded also as independent words. They are such words as, _indeed_, _surely_, _certainly_, _perhaps_, etc. For example:

_Indeed_, I cannot tell you now. _Surely_, I will comply with your request. _Perhaps_ it may be true. I _certainly_ hope to do so before long.

Exercise 4

Note in the following sentences the words which are pure interjections, and those which are other parts of speech used as exclamatory words. Mark those which are used in direct address, those which are used parenthetically, and those which are used as mere introductory words.

1. Oh, it seems impossible to believe it. 2. Surely, you will accept my word. 3. Nonsense, there is not the least truth in the story. 4. It will be impossible for us to join. 5. Therefore we urge you to join in this campaign. 6. There is only one solution to the problem. 7. It is difficult to discover the true facts. 8. Well, I have done my best to persuade you. 9. Mr. Chairman, I rise to a point of order. 10. Comrades, come and stand for your rights. 11. Yes, I have studied that philosophy. 12. Enough! we have been enslaved too long. 13. Hark! we hear the tramp of the army of labor. 14. Alas! that any should refuse to join in this battle. 15. You have not, it seems, understood the issue. 16. Indeed, solidarity is our only hope. 17. Br-r-r-r-r-r-r, thus whirl the machines that grind our children's lives. 18. Hush! Over the crash of the cannon sounds the wail of Europe's women and children.

EXPLANATORY WORDS

+398.+ We sometimes use words which do not belong in the construction of a sentence to explain other words in the sentence. For example:

We, _the undersigned_, subscribe as follows: Helen Keller, _the most wonderful woman of this age_, champions the cause of the working class.

In the first sentence, the words, _the undersigned_, are added to the pronoun _we_ to explain who _we_ means. In the second sentence, the words, _the most wonderful woman of this age_, are added to explain who Helen Keller is. Words added to other words in this way are called explanatory words. They are placed in apposition to the noun which they explain. Apposition means _by the side of_, or _in position near_. You remember that in clauses we found that a clause may be placed in apposition with a noun to explain the meaning of that noun. For example:

There is an old saying, _in union there is strength_.

These words in apposition may themselves be modified or limited by other words or phrases or clauses. For example:

Helen Keller, the most wonderful woman of this age, champions the cause of the working class.

In this sentence, _woman_ is the noun placed in apposition to the particular name, Helen Keller, and the noun _woman_ is modified by the adjectives _the_, and _wonderful_, and by the phrase _of this age_.

Sometimes a second explanatory word is placed in apposition to the first one. This is quite often the case in legal documents or resolutions, where the language is quite formal. For example:

We, the undersigned, _members of Local No. 38_, do hereby move, etc. I, John Smith, _Notary Public_, in and for the county of Clay, etc.

These words, _undersigned_ and _members_, are both placed in apposition to the pronoun _We_, explaining to whom that pronoun refers.

Exercise 5

In the following sentences note the explanatory words and their modifiers:

1. Wendell Phillips, the great abolitionist, was a man of genius. 2. Buckle, the historian, writes from the view point of the materialistic conception of history. 3. Giovannitti, the poet, wrote "Arrows in the Gale." 4. Helen Keller, champion of the working class, wrote the introduction to this book. 5. We, the workers of the world, will some day claim our own. 6. He was found guilty of treason, a crime punishable by death. 7. Ferrer, the martyr of the twentieth century, was put to death by the Spanish government. 8. Jaures, the great French socialist, was the first martyr to peace. 9. But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and abide forever. 10. Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal. 11. This document, the Constitution of the United States, hinders the progress of the people. 12. The memory of Guttenberg, the inventor of the printing press, should be reverenced by every class-conscious worker. 13. Wallace, the scientist and author, was co-discoverer with Darwin of the theory of evolution. 14. Karl Marx, the thinker, applied this theory to social forces. 15. Do you understand the three basic principles of Socialism--the class struggle, economic determinism and surplus value?

Exercise 6

Read the following list of words and note the ideas which they suggest to you, then make sentences containing these words, _modified by a word or group of words in apposition_, which explain more fully these words.

Law, martyr, society, education, inventor, commander, freedom, Eugene V. Debs, Karl Marx, Kaiser Wilhelm, The Balkan, Lawrence, Colorado, Calumet.

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION

+399.+ We have found that every word in a sentence bears some relation to every other word, except these words which we have been studying, which we use independently. These explanatory words which we have just been studying are not used independently, but do in a sense modify the noun with which they are placed in apposition. Sometimes we place a noun or a pronoun and its modifiers alongside the whole sentence and it does not really modify any part of the sentence, but modifies the whole sentence in a way, for it expresses an attendant thought or an accompanying circumstance. For example:

The workers being unorganized, the strike was easily defeated. The strikers having won, work was resumed on their terms.

_The workers being unorganised_ and _the strikers having won_ are not clauses for they do not contain a verb. _Being unorganized_ and _having won_ are participles. Neither do they modify any word in the sentence. They are not placed in apposition with any other word. While they do express a thought in connection with the sentence, in construction they seem to be cut loose from the rest of the sentence; that is, they are not closely connected with the sentence, hence they are called absolute constructions. _Ab_ means from, and _solute_, loose; so this means, literally, loose from the rest of the sentence.

We speak of these as absolute constructions, instead of independent, because the thought expressed is connected with the main thought of the sentence and is really a part of it. Notice that the noun used in the absolute construction is not the _subject_ of the sentence.

Take the sentence, _The workers being unorganized, the strike was_ _easily defeated_, the noun _strike_ is the subject of the sentence, and the noun _workers_ is used in the absolute construction with the participle, _being unorganized_.

These absolute constructions can ordinarily be rewritten into adverb clauses. For example, this sentence might read: _The strike was easily defeated because the workers were unorganized_. Do not make the mistake of rewriting your sentences and using the noun in the absolute construction as the subject of the sentence. For example:

The workers, being unorganized, were easily defeated.

This is not the meaning of this sentence. The meaning of the sentence is that the _strike_ was easily defeated _because_ the workers were unorganized. But the adverb clause, _because the workers were unorganized_, instead of being written as an adverb clause, has been written in the absolute construction, _the workers being unorganized_.

While it is nearly always possible to change these absolute constructions into adverb clauses the sentences are sometimes weakened by the change. These absolute constructions often enable us to make a statement in a stronger manner than we could make it with a clause or in any other way.

Exercise 7

In the following sentences, note the groups of words which are used in absolute construction. Rewrite these sentences and if possible change these words used in absolute construction into equivalent adverb phrases or clauses. Note how some of the sentences are weakened when you make this change.

1. _Nationalism having been taught to generation after generation_, the workers obeyed the call of the master class to slaughter their fellow workers. 2. _The hour having arrived_, Ferrer was blindfolded and led forth to die. 3. _The mass being without education_, capitalism gains an easy victory. 4. _The class struggle being a fact_, why should we hesitate to join our class? 5. _These facts being true_, such a conclusion is inevitable. 6. _Darwin having stated the theory of evolution_, Marx applied its principles to social science. 7. _Chattel slavery having been destroyed_, wage-slavery became the corner stone of capitalism. 8. _The price having been paid_, we claim our own. 9. _The battle ended_, the army left the trenches.

Exercise 8

Mark the interjections in the following quotations. Note the independent constructions. Mark the words used as explanatory words in apposition.

In the mind's eye, I see a wonderful building, something like the Coliseum of ancient Rome. The galleries are black with people; tier upon tier rise like waves the multitude of spectators who have come to see a great contest. A great contest, indeed! A contest in which all the world and all the centuries are interested. It is the contest--the fight to death--between Truth and Error.

The door opens, and a slight, small, shy and insignificant looking thing steps into the arena. It is Truth. The vast audience bursts into hilarious and derisive laughter. What! Is this Truth? This shuddering thing in tattered clothes, and almost naked? And the house shakes again with mocking and hisses.

The door opens again, and Error enters--clad in cloth of gold, imposing in appearance, tall of stature, glittering with gems, sleek and huge and ponderous, causing the building to tremble with the thud of its steps. The audience is for a moment dazzled into silence, then it breaks into applause, long and deafening. "Welcome!" "Welcome!" is the greeting from the multitude. "Welcome!" shout ten thousand throats.

The two contestants face each other. Error, in full armor--backed by the sympathies of the audience, greeted by the clamorous cheering of the spectators; and Truth, scorned, scoffed at, and hated. "The issue is a foregone conclusion," murmurs the vast audience. "Error will trample Truth under its feet."

The battle begins. The two clinch, separate, and clinch again. Truth holds its own. The spectators are alarmed. Anxiety appears in their faces. Their voices grow faint. Is it possible? Look! See! There! Error recedes! It fears the gaze of Truth! It shuns its beauteous eyes! Hear it shriek and scream as it feels Truth's squeeze upon its wrists. Error is trying to break away from Truth's grip. It is making for the door. It is gone!

The spectators are mute. Every tongue is smitten with the palsy. The people bite their lips until they bleed. They cannot explain what they have seen. "Oh! who would have believed it?" "Is it possible?"--they exclaim. But they cannot doubt what their eyes have seen--that puny and insignificant looking thing called Truth has put ancient and entrenched Error, backed by the throne, the altar, the army, the press, the people and the gods--to rout.

The pursuit of truth! Is it not worth living for? To seek the truth, to love the truth, to live the truth? Can any religion offer more?--_Mangasarian_.

SPELLING

LESSON 23

Many words contain letters for which there are no corresponding sounds in the spoken words. Thus, in the spoken word _though_ there are only two sounds, the _th_ and the _o_; _u_ and _g_ and _h_ are silent. There are a great many words in the English language which contain these silent letters. There has been a movement inaugurated for the purpose of simplifying the spelling of these words, omitting these silent letters. Some writers have adopted this method of simplified spelling, and so in some magazines and books which you read you will find these silent letters dropped; for example, you will find _though_ spelled _tho_, _through_ spelled _thru_.

This method of simplified spelling has not been universally adopted and we have not followed it in these lessons because we feared that it would be confusing. Probably in most of your reading you will find the old method of spelling followed and all of these silent letters included. No doubt, as time goes on, we shall adopt this simplified method of spelling and drop all of these silent and useless letters.

In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of words containing silent letters.

+MONDAY+

In a number of words you will find _ea_ pronounced as short _e_. The board of simplified spelling has suggested that we drop the _a_, which is a silent letter, from these words. If we adopted their suggestion, words like _head_ would be spelled _hed_. Note the spelling of the following words in which _ea_ is pronounced as short _e_ and the _a_ is silent.

Spread, stead, threat, meant, pleasant, stealth.

+TUESDAY+

We have a number of words ending in _ough_ in which the _gh_ is silent.

1. In some of these words the _ou_ is pronounced like _ow_. We have already changed the spelling of a few of these words, for example, we no longer use _plough_, but write it _plow_.

2. In other words ending with _ough_ the _ugh_ is silent and the words end with a long _o_ sound, as in _though_. Many writers have dropped the silent letters ugh and spell this simply _tho_.

3. A few other words ending with _ough_ end with a _u_ sound and those who adopt the simplified spelling have dropped the _ough_ and used simply _u_, as in _through_; many writers spell it simply _thru_. Observe the spelling of the following words and mark the silent letters:

Bough, through, thorough, furlough, borough, though.

+WEDNESDAY+

We have a number of words ending in _mn_ in which the _n_ is silent. Note the spelling of the following words:

Autumn, solemn, column, kiln, hymn, condemn.

+THURSDAY+

We have a number of words containing a silent _b_. Notice the spelling of the following words:

Doubt, debt, dumb, limb, thumb, lamb.

+FRIDAY+

A number of words end with silent _ue_ after _g_. Some writers omit the ue and probably after a while we will drop this silent _ue_, but you will find it used now in most of your reading. These are such words as:

Catalogue, demagogue, decalogue, tongue, league, harangue.

+SATURDAY+

We have a number of words ending with _gh_ in which the _gh_ has the sound of _f_, as in the following words:

Trough, rough, enough, laugh, tough, cough.

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 24

Dear Comrade: