Part 22

Be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express quite a different meaning. For example, if you say, _I care more for you than he_, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if you say, _I care more for you than him_, you mean, I care more for you than I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you some time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a course in Plain English!

+356.+ +Adverb clauses of condition.+ These clauses are introduced by such conjunctions as, _if_, _provided_, _supposing_, _unless_, _except_, _otherwise_, _though_, _notwithstanding_, _albeit_, and _whether_. For example:

I will come _if_ you need me. I will come _provided_ you need me. I will go _notwithstanding_ you need me. I will not go _unless_ I am called. He will not go _except_ he is called. He will not go _though_ he is called. He came, _otherwise_ I would go. He will go _whether_ you go or stay.

When subordinate clauses beginning with _if_, _though_ or _unless_ are joined to clauses containing _might_, _could_, _would_ or _should_, the verb _were_ is sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences as:

If this _were_ true, I should know it. Unless I _were_ positive, I would not say so. Though our leader _were_ lost, yet we would not despair. If he _were_ here, he would explain it himself. If I _were_ with you, I might make you understand.

Sometimes in sentences like these, _if_ is omitted in the clause, and the verb placed first. For example:

_Were_ he here, he would deny these slanders. _Were_ he truly class-conscious, he would oppose this war. _Were_ this fact known, the people would never submit.

These clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be decided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish. Occasionally you will find the verb _be_ used instead of _is_, in clauses of this kind introduced by _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, _lest_, etc. For example:

If it _be_ true, I will hear it. Though he _be_ guilty, we will not desert him.

In subordinate clauses connected by _if_, _unless_, etc., with a principal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the verb is used in the subordinate clause. For example:

If they are willing, we will join them. Unless he comes, I shall not leave. If it rains, we will not go.

+357.+ +Adverb clauses expressing purpose.+ These are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _that_, _in order that_ and _lest_. For example:

Take good care _that_ you understand this lesson. I will go today _in order that_ I may meet him. Watch these carefully _lest_ they be stolen. Read the labor press _that_ you may know the truth.

Notice that _that_, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, means _in order that_. For example, the sentence above might read:

Read the labor press _in order that_ you may know the truth.

+358.+ +Adverb clauses expressing result.+ These are introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_, as for example:

They were so late _that_ I could not go.

SUMMARY

+359.+ We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate conjunctions expressing:

1. +Time.+ Answer the question _when_. 2. +Place.+ Answer the question _where_. 3. +Cause or reason.+ Answer the question _why_. 4. +Manner.+ Answer the question _how_. 5. +Comparison.+ Used to compare. 6. +Condition.+ Answer the question _on what condition_. 7. +Purpose.+ Answer the question _for what purpose_. 8. +Result.+ Answer the question _to what result_.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class they belong; ask the question _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _on what condition_, _for what purpose_, _to what result_. Underscore the subordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed in italics.

1. Speech was developed that _we_ might be able to communicate with one another. 2. The International failed in the crisis because _it_ had no definite war program. 3. We will fail if _we_ have no definite program. 4. If _labor_ were united, we could destroy wage slavery. 5. When the _people_ understand, they will no longer submit. 6. Labor cannot win until _it_ learns solidarity. 7. After the terrible _war_ is over, the workers in all countries may come closer together. 8. We are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the _war_ has been declared. 9. If _we_ knew the facts we could not be misled. 10. Inform yourself before _you_ seek to teach others. 11. We must unite in order that _we_ may possess power. 12. It is more than the _heart_ can bear. 13. May you have courage to dare ere _you_ have ceased to dream. 14. If _we_ remain ignorant, we shall remain enslaved. 15. We sometimes fear to trust our own thought because _it_ is our own. 16. Though _we_ should lose the strike we will not despair. 17. The battle waged so fiercely that _thousands_ were slain.

PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS

+360.+ There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They are:

_As if_, _as though_, _but also_, _but likewise_, _so that_, _except that_, _inasmuch as_, _notwithstanding that_, _in order that_, _as well as_, _as far as_, _so far as_, _as little as_, _provided that_, _seeing that_, etc.

Exercise 2

Write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses.

NOUN CLAUSES

+361.+ We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal clauses and subordinate clauses.

+A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.+

+A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the principal clause.+

We have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance; neither is dependent upon the other.

Subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a subordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses.

The subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause.

+362.+ +A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.+

A noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as a possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate complement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be introduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by conjunctions. For example:

I know _who_ he is. He asked, "_what_ do you want?" I know _where_ it is.

In the first sentence, _who he is_, is a noun clause used as the object of the verb _know_. It tells _what_ I know, and is the object of the verb _know_,--just as if I had said; _I know the facts_. In this sentence the noun, _facts_, is the object of the verb _know_.

In the second sentence, _He asked, "what do you want?_" the noun clause _what do you want_ is the object of the verb _asked_, and is introduced by the interrogative pronoun _what_.

We will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced by relative pronouns. In this lesson we are studying the conjunctions.

In the last sentence, _I know where it is_, the noun clause _where it is_, is the object of the verb _know_, and is introduced by the conjunction _where_.

+363.+ Noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions, _where_, _when_, _whence_, _whither_, _whether_, _how_, _why_, and also by the subordinate conjunction _that_. For example:

I know _where_ I can find it. I inquired _when_ he would arrive. We do not know _whence_ it cometh nor whither it goeth. Ask _whether_ the train has gone. I don't know _how_ I can find you. I cannot understand _why_ he does so. I believe _that_ he is honest.

In all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the verb. Noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions. As, for example:

You do not listen to _what is said_. He talked to me about _what had happened_. He told me to come to _where he was_.

+364.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence. As for example:

_That he is innocent_ is admitted by all. _That he was guilty_ has been proven. _Why he should do this_ is very strange. _How we are to live_ is the great problem.

In all of these sentences, the noun clause is used as the subject of the verb. You will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject of the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_. But quite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way. For example:

It is admitted by all _that he is innocent_. It has been proven _that he was guilty_.

You will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the same thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the subject of the verb.

But now we have this little pronoun _it_ used as the subject, instead of the clause, which is the real subject of the sentence. _It_ is simply used as the introductory word in the sentence. The noun clause is in reality the subject of the sentence.

+365.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a copulative verb. For example:

The general opinion is _that he is innocent_. The problem is _how we may accomplish this quickly_. The question was _why any one should believe such statements_.

In all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of the incomplete verbs _is_ and _was_, to complete the meaning, just as we use a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such sentences as, _Socialism is a science._ _War is murder._

+366.+ A noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain its meaning. Apposition means to place alongside of. Note in the following sentences:

The fact, _that such a law had been passed_, alters the situation. His motion, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, was adopted.

In the first sentence, the clause, _that such a law had been passed_, is placed beside the noun _fact_ and explains _what_ that fact is. The clause, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, is in apposition to and explains the noun _motion_.

These noun clauses are used in apposition.

Exercise 3

Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate conjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces:

1. Can you tell......Germany has a million fighting men? 2. Would you be pleased......the United States should intervene in Mexico? 3. The Mexican revolution will continue......the people possess the land. 4. No one may vote in the convention......he has credentials. 5. ......Debs was in Woodstock jail, he became in Socialist. 6. ......the treaty was signed, hostilities ceased. 7. We shall win......we have the courage. 8. ......we have lost this battle we shall not cease to struggle. 9. All are enslaved......one is enslaved. 10. Humanity will be free......labor is free. 11. Let us do our duty......we understand it. 12. Man will never reach his best......he walks side by side with woman. 13. We must struggle......we would be free. 14. ......we shout for peace, we support war. 15. All our sympathies should be with the man......toils,......we know......labor is the foundation of all. 16. ......all have the right to think and to express their thoughts every brain will give to all the best......it has. 17. ......man develops he places greater value upon his own rights. 18. ......man values his own rights he begins to value the rights of others. 19. ......all men give to all others the rights......they claim for themselves this world will be civilized.

Exercise 4

Note all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following verses from "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." Underscore the subordinate clauses. Are they adverb or noun clauses? Do the co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses?

I know not _whether_ Laws be right, Or _whether_ Laws be wrong; All that we know who lie in gaol Is _that_ the wall is strong; _And that_ each day is like a year, A year whose days are long.

_But_ this I know, _that_ every Law That men have made for Man, _Since_ first Man took his brother's life, _And_ the sad world began, But straws the wheat _and_ saves the chaff With a most evil fan.

This too I know--_and_ wise it were _If_ each could know the same-- _That_ every prison that men build Is built with bricks of shame, _And_ bound with bars _lest_ Christ should see _How_ men their brothers maim.

With bars they blur the gracious moon, _And_ blind the goodly sun: _And_ they do well to hide their Hell, _For_ in it things are done That son of God _nor_ son of Man Ever should look upon!

In Reading gaol by Reading town There is a pit of shame, _And_ in it lies a wretched man Eaten by teeth of flame, In a burning winding sheet he lies, _And_ his grave has got no name.

_And_ there, _till_ Christ call forth the dead, In silence let him lie: No need to waste the foolish tear, _Or_ heave the windy sigh: The man had killed the thing he loved, _And so_ he had to die.

_And_ all men kill the thing they love, By all let this be heard, Some do it with a bitter look, Some with a flattering word, The coward does it with a kiss, The brave man with a sword.

--_Oscar Wilde_.

SPELLING

LESSON 21

In Lesson No. 17 we studied concerning abstract nouns derived from qualifying adjectives. We found that we formed these nouns expressing quality from adjectives that describe quality by the addition of suffixes.

Adjectives may likewise be formed from nouns and also from verbs by the addition of suffixes. There are a number of suffixes which may be used to form adjectives in this way; as, _al_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _less_, _able_, _ible_, _ary_ and _ory_. Notice the following words: nation, _national_; peril, _perilous_; reason, _reasonable_; sense, _sensible_; custom, _customary_; advise, _advisory_; hero, _heroic_; care, _careful_, _careless_.

To some words, more than one suffix may be added and an adjective of different meaning formed; for example, use, _useless_, _useful_; care, _careless_, _careful_.

Make as many adjectives as you can from the nouns and verbs given in the spelling lesson for this week by the addition of one or more of the following suffixes:

_Al_, _less_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _able_, _ible_, _ary_, _ory_, and _ly_.

+Monday+

Accident Danger Origin Commend Element

+Tuesday+

Critic Libel Attain Revolution Contradict

+Wednesday+

Cynic Injury Respect Station Migrate

+Thursday+

Event Parent Order Virtue Marvel

+Friday+

Second Fashion Consider Murder Incident

+Saturday+

Constitution Industry Vibrate Tribute Compliment

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 22

Dear Comrade:

We have practically finished the study of the different parts of speech. We are now in possession of a knowledge of the tools which we need to use in expressing ourselves. We are ready to make practical application of this knowledge in writing and speaking. We will find that with our increasing ability to express ourselves there comes also the power to think clearly. The analysis of language has meant a growing power to _think_ on the part of the people.

We sometimes imagine that simplicity of language was a part of primitive life, but this is not true. Simplicity of language is the product of high civilization. Primitive life was marked, not by simplicity of language, but by the scarcity of language. They made one word stand for an entire sentence, and if they wished to express a little different meaning, an entirely different word had to be used, as for example, in the primitive language: _I said to her_, would be one word, and _I said to him_, would be another, entirely different, word.

But as the power of thought began to develop, we began to analyze our meaning and we found that this thought was identical except the _him_ and the _her_. So as we analyzed our thought our expression of it became more simple. In most languages, the different meaning of the verb, for example, is expressed by an arbitrary change in the verb form. This is called the inflection of the verb. In English we would use several words to express the same thing. For example, the Latin word _Fuissem_ requires four English words to express the same meaning; _I should have been_, we say in English. So instead of having to learn a great number of different changes in the verb form, we, by the use of auxiliary verbs, _have_, _shall_, _do_, _be_, etc., are able to express all these shades of thought much more simply and clearly.

Most other languages also have changes for gender. Every noun has a gender of its own and sometimes this form gives the wrong gender to living beings and attributes sex to sexless objects and the only way to know the gender of the noun is simply by memory. Then the adjectives, possessive pronouns and the articles _a_ and _the_ have gender also and have to be changed to suit the gender of the noun; this involves a great effort of memory. So while the English may seem somewhat involved to you, it is, after all, much simpler than other languages. It has been freed from many superfluous endings and unnecessary complications.

Take a little time each day to read something out of the best literature. The quotations given in each of these lessons are from our very best writers. A study of these will be a wonderful help and inspiration to you and bring you in touch with some of the great thinkers of the revolution. They are our comrades and are putting into words the thoughts and hopes and dreams of our lives.

Yours for the Revolution,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

+367.+ In our study of subordinate clauses, we have studied subordinate clauses used as adverbs and as nouns. We have found that adverb clauses can be used in the same way as adverbs, to describe the time, place, manner, cause, condition or purpose of the action expressed in the verb. We have found, also, that a noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun can be used, as the subject of the sentence, the object of a verb or preposition or as the predicate complement. But these are not the only uses to which the subordinate clause may be put. Note the following sentences:

_Wealthy_ men desire to control the education of the people. Men _of wealth_ desire to control the education of the people. Men _who are wealthy_ desire to control the education of the people.

Do you see any difference in the words which are used to modify the noun _men_? In the first sentence, _wealthy_ is an adjective, modifying the noun _men_. In the second sentence, _of wealth_ is a prepositional phrase, used as an adjective modifying the noun _men_. In the last sentence, _who are wealthy_ is a clause used in exactly the same way that the adjective _wealthy_ and the adjective phrase _of wealth_ are used, to modify the noun _men_.

We have expressed practically the same meaning in these three ways: by a word; by a phrase; by a clause.

+368.+ +A word used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective.+

+A phrase used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective phrase.+

+A clause used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective clause.+

Note the difference between a phrase and a clause.

+369.+ A prepositional phrase, used as an adjective, consists of the preposition and the noun which is its object, together with its modifiers. A phrase never has either a subject or a predicate. _Who are wealthy_, is a clause because it does contain a subject and a predicate. The pronoun _who_ is the subject in the clause, and the predicate is the copulative verb _are_ with the predicate complement, the adjective _wealthy_.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences change the adjective into a phrase and also into a clause, if possible. For example:

A _fearless_ man always defends his rights. A man _without fear_ always defends his rights. A man _who is fearless_ always defends his rights.

1. The _unemployed_ men are becoming desperate. 2. The _uneducated_ masses are demanding equal opportunity. 3. The discovery of gold was an _important_ discovery. 4. _Unorganized_ labor is helpless. 5. The revolution needs _intelligent_ rebels. 6. A few _wealthy_ men are striving to control education. 7. This will be a _progressive_ movement. 8. _Labor-saving_ inventions throw men out of employment. 9. _Scientific_ men prophesy a great advance for the mass.

THE INTRODUCING WORD

+370.+ You will notice that these adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and _that_. These relative pronouns fulfil something of the office of a conjunction, because they are serving as connecting elements; they join these subordinate clauses to the words which they modify. But you will note, also, that these relative pronouns not only serve as connecting elements, but they also play a part in the subordinate clause, as either the subject or object. For example:

The man who has no education is handicapped in the struggle. Are these the books that you ordered?

In the first sentence, _who has an education_ is an adjective clause modifying the noun _man_, introduced by the relative pronoun _who_, which is also the subject of the verb _has_.

In the second sentence, _that you ordered_ is an adjective clause, modifying the noun _books_, introduced by the relative pronoun _that_, which is also the object of the verb _ordered_.

+371.+ There is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses. If the clause is used as a noun, either as the subject or the object or in any other way in which a noun can be used, it is a noun clause. If it is used as an adverb and will answer any of the questions _why_, _when_, _where_, or _how_, etc., it is an adverb clause. If it is used as an adjective,--if it modifies a noun or pronoun,--it is an adjective clause.

You will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not have its corresponding clause is as a possessive. We do not have possessive clauses. The clause used as an adjective always modifies a noun or pronoun.

+372.+ +An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence always modifies a noun or pronoun.+

An adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns, _who_, _which_ or _that_. The use of this clause is a great help to us in the expression of our ideas, for it enables us to combine several sentences containing related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all presented to the mind at once.

Exercise 2

In the following sentences, note which are the noun clauses and which are the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses. The verb in the subordinate clause is in italics.