Part 21

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the _preposition_, as:

He gave that to _you_ and _me_.

Exercise 4

Study closely the following sentences and correct those in which the wrong form of the pronoun is used.

1. He and I are old friends. 2. Did you ask him or me? 3. They promised him and I that they would come. 4. Find the place for she and me. 5. Me and him will get it for you and she. 6. She and I will go with you. 7. You and I must decide matters for ourselves. 8. You will find him and her to be loyal comrades.

VERBS

+338.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs.+ Verbs connected in this way have the same subject; and with the use of the conjunction to connect the verbs, we save repeating the subject.

He _reads_ and _studies_ constantly.

In this sentence _reads_ and _studies_ are words of the same kind and of the same rank; either could be omitted and the other would make a predicate for the sentence. They are of equal importance in the sentence and are connected by the conjunction _and_. They have a single subject, the pronoun _he_.

This is called a compound predicate.

In the sentence, _He reads constantly_, we have a simple predicate, the single verb _reads_; but in the sentence, _He reads and studies constantly_, we have a compound predicate, compound of the two verbs _reads_ and _studies_. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate. As, for example:

John and James read and study constantly.

In this sentence _John_ and _James_ is the compound subject of both the verbs, _read_ and _study_. So we have a compound subject and a compound predicate.

Exercise 5

Notice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Draw lines under each compound predicate.

1. The days come _and_ go in a ceaseless round. 2. The brave man dreams _and_ dares to live the dream. 3. The coward dreams _but_ dares not live the dream. 4. We produce splendidly _but_ distribute miserably. 5. The bought press twists _and_ distorts the facts. 6. Only a traitor aids _or_ supports the enemy. 7. We agitate _and_ educate for the cause of liberty.

ADJECTIVES

+339.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives.+

In this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word without tiresome repetition. When several adjectives are used to modify the same word, the conjunction is used only between the last two adjectives. As, for example:

A _simple_, _clear_ and _concise_ course has been prepared.

Exercise 6

In the following sentences, underscore the adjectives which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.

1. The plains of France are covered with the dead and dying soldiers. 2. Education should be both universal and free. 3. They are faithful and loyal comrades. 4. This was only our just and legal right. 5. Old and hoary was the man who sat on the stool by the fireless and godless altar. 6. The service of humanity is a sweet and noble task. 7. We must be brave and true. 8. He lived a noble and courageous life. 9. All was old and cold and mournful. 10. Most powerful and eloquent is the voice of the disinherited.

ADVERBS

+340.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs.+ This gives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the tiresome repetition of the verb. For example:

He spoke _fluently_ and _eloquently_.

Exercise 7

In the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions:

1. Man selfishly and greedily prevents his fellow men from the enjoyment of nature's bounties. 2. She is wonderfully and gloriously brave. 3. He speaks eloquently and impressively, but very slowly. 4. Nature has provided lavishly and bountifully for her children. 5. Advice spoken truly and wisely is always in season. 6. We must resist injustice bravely and courageously. 7. He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class. 8. He writes easily and rapidly. 9. The words, calmly and coolly spoken, were instantly opposed. 10. He reached that conclusion naturally and inevitably. 11. He was gently but unwaveringly firm. 12. The revolution comes slowly but surely.

PHRASES

+341.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used, not only to connect words, but also to connect phrases.+

Verb Phrases

+342.+ Verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions. For example:

The People's College _is owned_ and _controlled_ by the working class. We _have made_ and _are making_ a fierce struggle for a free press.

In this last sentence the two verb phrases, _have made_ and _are making_ are connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Often in using verb phrases, we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both phrases. When this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted in the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the conjunction. As, for example:

The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class.

In this sentence the helping verb _is_ belongs in both the phrases but is omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding sentence. In the second phrase, only the past participle _controlled_ is used. It is understood that we mean,

The People's College _is owned_ and _is controlled_ by the working class.

Exercise 8

Note the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect the verb phrases. Supply the helping verb where it is omitted.

1. Our system of education is rooted and grounded in outgrown dogmas. 2. We have written but have received no answer. 3. Will you come or stay? 4. Man must struggle or remain in slavery. 5. The workers are organizing and demanding their rights. 6. We must arouse and educate our comrades. 7. We have sought but have not found.

Prepositional Phrases

+343.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional phrases.+

These phrases may be used as adjective phrases. For example:

The books _in the book case_ and _on the table_ belong to me.

These phrases may be used as adverb phrases. For example:

He works _with speed_ and _with ease_.

Exercise 9

Note in the following sentences, the prepositional phrases which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Mark which are used as adjective and which as adverb phrases.

1. Education is the road out of ignorance and into the light. 2. The army charged over the plain and up the hill. 3. The first men lived in groups and in clans. 4. Democracy means government of the people and by the people. 5. Shall we take the path toward progress or toward barbarism. 6. They are not fighting for their country but for their king. 7. Human rights are not protected by the law nor by the courts. 8. The problem of the working class and of society is the problem of equitable distribution. 9. They are deceived by their leaders and by their press. 10. You can pay either by the week or by the month. 11. Our government is not the rule of the majority but of the minority.

Infinitives and Participles

+344.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives and participles.+

Exercise 10

In the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.

1. Those words will inspire us to dream and to dare. 2. We shall learn to produce and to distribute. 3. To be or not to be, that is the question. 4. Puffing and panting, the great engine pulled up to the station. 5. A cringing and trembling coward fears to demand his own. 6. The warped and twisted facts in the daily press deceive the masses. 7. Singing and dancing should be enjoyed by all children. 8. The exploiting and robbing of the people is made a virtue in ruling class ethics.

CLAUSES

+345.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of equal rank.+ For example:

_The floods came and the winds blew._

Each of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself, but they are combined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate conjunction, _and_. Clauses united in this way may have a compound subject and a compound predicate, but two complete clauses must be united by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound sentence. For example:

The rain and snow fell, _and_ the wind blew a mighty gale.

Here the first clause in the compound sentence, _the rain and snow fell_, contains a compound subject, _rain and snow_.

The boys are running and shouting, _and_ the girls are gathering flowers.

Here the first clause has a compound predicate, _are running_ and _shouting_. The second _and_ connects the two clauses forming the compound sentence.

CORRELATIVES

+346.+ Certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs, such as _both, and_; _either, or_; _neither, nor_; _whether, or_. These pairs are called correlatives. The first word in the pair, as, _both_, _either_, _neither_, or _whether_, is used as an assistant conjunction helping the other to do the connecting. These are used in such sentences as:

I have _both_ seen _and_ heard him. They will join us _either_ in April _or_ in May. Labor has received _neither_ liberty _nor_ justice. _Whether_ to go forward _or_ to retreat was the problem.

Note that _nor_ is always the proper correlative to use with _neither_ and also with the negatives _not_ and _never_ when they apply to what follows as well as to what precedes. For example:

There are thousands in this country who can _neither_ read _nor_ write. _Neither_ you _nor_ I can foretell the future. He will _not_ write _nor_ should you. Capital punishment is _nothing_ more _nor_ less than legalized murder. We shall _never_ lower our colors _nor_ retreat.

_Or_ is always used with the correlative _either_. For example:

We will _either_ come _or_ write you. _Either_ he was mistaken _or_ he deliberately lied.

Exercise 11

Note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions _and_, _but_, _or_ and _nor_, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use of _and_ as an introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting it with that which has gone before.

In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a traitor.

They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave, and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars, under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being.

All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is an intellectual thief and robber.

Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth, and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty; liberty is wealth.

It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves, exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander glory, than liberty for man, woman and child.

Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist. But come and take up thine abode with the children of men forever.--_Ingersoll_.

SPELLING

LESSON 20

We found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other words. We also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other words. Derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways:

1. By adding suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffix _ly_, as for example; _chiefly_, _truly_, _really_, _lately_, etc.

2. By changing _ble_ to _bly_, as in _ably_, _nobly_, etc.

3. By adding the suffix _ward_, as in _forward_, _upward_, _skyward_, _downward_, _homeward_, etc.

4. We have some adverbs formed by adding the prefix _a_ to adjectives and nouns, as _ahead_, _afoot_, _afresh_, also by adding the prefix _be_, as in _besides_, _beyond_.

We often misspell a number of adverbs by adding _s_ where it does not rightfully belong; as, _anywheres_, _everywheres_, _backwards_, _forwards_, _towards_, _upwards_, _downwards_, _afterwards_, _homewards_, etc. All of these words should be written without the _s_.

We also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of two other parts of speech, such as _sometime_, _henceforth_, _forever_, _overheard_, _outside_, etc.

In the lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, adjectives are given having opposite meanings. Make the proper adverbs from these adjectives by the addition of the suffix _ly_.

Thursday's and Friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and adverbs that end in _ly_. Look up in your dictionary and be sure you know which are adjectives and which are adverbs.

Saturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs.

+Monday+

Haughty--Humble Wise--Ignorant Careful--Careless Firm--Wavering

+Tuesday+

Honest--Deceitful Fearful--Fearless Punctual--Tardy Identical--Different

+Wednesday+

Thoughtful--Thoughtless Rich--Poor Attentive--Inattentive Industrious--Lazy

+Thursday+

Quickly Lovely Clearly Cleanly

+Friday+

Homely Truly Courtly Nearly

+Saturday+

Otherwise Herewith Sometime Always

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 21

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order of the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last. The need of connective words does not come in any language until the language is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective words, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the child begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the things with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that express what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to reason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the relationship existing between things.

The use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and involved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note the authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use short and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our thoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many ideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas concisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially these subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses in one sentence.

Notice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences. Notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to read. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression.

Especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly and simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is conducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are apt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author through long, winding, involved passages.

In the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your conclusion.

Conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and short, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

+347.+ We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or clause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main clauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses. Subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only dependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following sentences:

He came _quickly_. He came _on time_. He came _when he was called_.

In the first sentence the word _quickly_ is an adverb modifying the verb _came_ and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. In the second sentence, the phrase _on time_ is an adverb phrase modifying the verb _came_, and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. In the third sentence, the clause _when he was called_, also answers the question _when_, and tells _when_ he came. Therefore, it is a clause used as an adverb. It is different from the phrase _on time_, for the phrase _on time_ does not contain a subject and a predicate.

+348.+ The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the clause _always_ contains both a subject and a predicate. So in the clause, _when he was called_, _he_ is the subject and _was called_ is the predicate, and _when_ is the subordinate conjunction, which connects this adverb clause to the verb _came_, which it modifies. The clause _he came_, and the clause _when he was called_, are not of equal rank and importance, because the clause, _when he was called_, simply modifies the verb contained in the clause _he came_, by describing the _time_ of the action expressed in the verb _came_. So the clause, _when he was called_, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called subordinate conjunctions.

+349.+ +A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.+

CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

+350.+ Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses. These clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs. They will tell _how_, _when_, _where_ or _why_ the action expressed in the verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb clauses. They introduce:

+351.+ +Adverb clause of time.+ These clauses will answer the question _when_ and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _before_, _since_, _as_, _while_, _until_, _when_, _after_ and _as soon as_. Notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions:

We waited _until_ you came. We waited _after_ you came. We waited _as_ you came. We waited _before_ you came. We waited _since_ you came. We left _while_ you were gone. We left _when_ you were gone. We left _as soon as_ you were gone.

+352.+ +Adverb clause of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and are introduced by the conjunctions, _where_, _whence_, _whither_.

I will go _where_ you go. The wind blows _whither_ it listeth. He went _whence_ he came.

+353.+ +Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason.+ These will answer the question _why_. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _because_, _for_, _since_, _as_, _whereas_, _inasmuch as_, etc.

Note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed by the use of different conjunctions:

I will come _because_ you expect me. I will come _since_ you expect me. I will come _as_ you expect me. I will come _for_ you expect me. I will come _inasmuch as_ you expect me.

+354.+ +Adverb clauses of manner.+ These clauses will answer the question _how_, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _as_, _as if_, _as though_, etc.

Study _as though_ you were in earnest. Come _as if_ you had been called. Do _as_ I say, not _as_ I do.

In these clauses of _manner_, introduced by _as if_, and _as though_, _were_ is used in the present form with either singular or plural subjects. For example:

He writes as if he _were_ informed of the facts. They talk as though they _were_ confident of success. You act as though I _were_ your slave.

+355.+ +Adverb clauses of comparison.+ These clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions _than_ and _as_. The verbs are often omitted in these dependent clauses introduced by _than_ and _as_. For example: _He is taller than I_. The complete sentence would be: _He is taller than I am_. _He is not so tall as I._ Here the sentence would be: _He is not so tall as I am_.

When the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the proper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the verb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say: _I am not so tall as him_. The correct form is: _I am not so tall as he_. The complete sentence would be: _I am not so tall as he is_, and the pronoun should be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verb _is_, which is understood and omitted.

The use of the _subject_ or of the _object_ form may make a difference in the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say: _I admire them as much as he_. You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them. But if you say, _I admire them as much as him_, you mean that you admire them as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning!