Part 20

I was home yesterday.

We should say, _I was at home_ yesterday.

+3. Do not use the preposition _of_ with a verb that requires an object.+ The noun cannot be the object of both the verb and the preposition. As, for example:

He does not remember _of_ seeing you. Do you approve _of_ his action?

_Remember_ and _approve_ are both incomplete verbs requiring an object, and the nouns _seeing_ and _action_ are the objects of the incomplete verbs _remember_ and _approve_. The preposition _of_ is entirely superfluous. The sentences should read:

He does not remember seeing you. Do you approve his action?

Other verbs with which we commonly use the preposition _of_ in this way are the verbs _accept_ and _recollect_. As, for example:

Will you accept _of_ this kindness? Will you try to recollect _of_ it?

These sentences should read:

Will you accept this kindness? Will you try to recollect it?

The Correct Preposition

+323.+ We make a great many mistakes also in the choice of prepositions. For example, the preposition _between_ refers to two objects and should never be used when you are speaking of more than two, thus:

We settled the quarrel _between_ the two men.

This is correct, but it is incorrect to say:

We settled the quarrel _between_ the members of the Union.

We cannot settle a quarrel between a _dozen_ people. When there are more than two, use the word _among_. We can perhaps attempt to settle a quarrel _among_ a dozen people. _Between_ refers to two objects, _among_ refers to more than two. For example:

Divide the work _between_ the two men. Divide the work _among_ twenty men.

+324.+ Do not confuse the use of _in_ and _into_. When entrance is denoted use _into_. As, for example:

He came into the room. He got into the auto.

Often the use of _in_ will give an entirely different meaning to the sentence. For example:

He ran _in_ the water. He ran _into_ the water. The man acted as our guide _in_ the city. The man acted as our guide _into_ the city. The horse ran _in_ the pasture. The horse ran _into_ the pasture.

+325.+ Do not use _below_ and _under_ to mean _less_ or _fewer_ in regard to an amount or number. _Below_ and _under_ have reference to place only. It is correct to say:

He went _under_ the bridge. He came out _below_ the falls.

But it is incorrect to say:

The price is _below_ cost. There were _under_ fifty present.

Say instead:

The price is _less_ than cost. There were _fewer_ than fifty present.

+326.+ Do not misuse _over_ and _above_. These prepositions have reference only to _place_. They are incorrectly used to mean _more than_ or _greater than_.

It is correct to say:

The boat anchored above the landing. He flew over the city.

It is incorrect to say:

He bought above a hundred acres. He lives over a mile from here.

These sentences should be:

He bought more than a hundred acres. He lives more than a mile from here.

THE PREPOSITION WITH VERBS

+327.+ In our first lesson on prepositions, we had a list of verbs and the correct preposition to use with these verbs. There are a few words which we use very commonly in which the meaning is slightly different according to the preposition which we use in connection with the verb. Foreigners especially who are learning the English language have great difficulty with the prepositions. Here are a few of these common words:

+Adapt.+ With _adapt_ we can use either the preposition _to_ or _for_. For example; we adapt ourselves _to_ circumstances, that is, we accommodate or conform ourselves; but a thing can be adapted _for_ a certain purpose.

+Agree.+ We can use the prepositions _with_ and _to_ with the verb _agree_, but with different meanings. For example, we say, We agree _with_ you about a certain matter; and, We agree _to_ the proposal which you make.

+Ask.+ We ask a favor _of_ a person. We ask a friend _for_ a favor. We ask _about_ some one or thing that we wish to hear about.

+Charge.+ There are several prepositions we can use with the verb _charge_. Your grocer charges you _for_ the things that you buy. If you run an account you are charged _with_ a certain amount. These things are charged _to_ you; but in war the enemy charges _upon_ you.

+Compare.+ One thing is compared _with_ another in quality, but it is compared _to_ another when we are using the comparison for an illustration.

+Complain.+ We make complaint _to_ the manager _of_ the things we do not like.

+Comply.+ We comply _with_ the request of another, but he does a thing _in_ compliance _with_ that request. Do not use the preposition _to_ with compliance.

+Correspond.+ With correspond, we use either the preposition _with_ or _to_. For example, I may correspond _with_ you, meaning that I communicate with you by letter, but one thing corresponds _to_ another, meaning that it is like the other.

+Disgust.+ We are disgusted _with_ our friends sometimes _at_ the things which they do. We are disgusted _with_ people and _at_ things.

+Reconcile.+ With reconcile, we use either the preposition _with_ or _to_. For example, I may become reconciled _with_ you; that is, I am restored to friendship or favor after an estrangement. But we reconcile one thing _to_ another; that is, we harmonize one thing with another.

+Taste.+ We have a taste _for_ music, art or literature, but we enjoy the taste _of_ good things to eat. When taste refers to one of the five senses, use the preposition _of_, but when you use it to mean intellectual relish or enjoyment, use the preposition _for_.

Exercise 2

Mark all of the prepositional phrases in the following poem:

THE ANGEL OF DISCONTENT

When the world was formed and the morning stars Upon their paths were sent, The loftiest-browed of the angels was made The Angel of Discontent.

And he dwelt with man in the caves of the hills, Where the crested serpents sting, And the tiger tears and the she-wolf howls, And he told of better things.

And he led them forth to the towered town, And forth to the fields of corn, And told of the ampler work ahead, For which his race was born.

And he whispers to men of those hills he sees In the blush of the misty west; And they look to the heights of his lifted eye-- And they hate the name of rest.

In the light of that eye does the slave behold A hope that is high and brave; And the madness of war comes into his blood-- For he knows himself a slave.

The serfs of wrong by the light of that eye March with victorious songs; For the strength of the right comes into their hearts When they behold their wrongs.

'Tis by the light of that lifted eye That error's mists are rent; A guide to the table-lands of Truth Is the Angel of Discontent.

And still he looks with his lifted eye, And his glance is far away, On a light that shines on the glimmering hills Of a diviner day.

--_Sam Walter Foss_.

Exercise 3

Mark all of the prepositions in the following poem. Write out the entire phrases and mark the word which is the object of the preposition. For example, in the phrase in the second line; _from a rich dream_, _dream_ is the object of the preposition _from_; and _a_ and _rich_ modify the noun _dream_.

Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase) Awoke one night from a rich dream of peace, And saw, within the moonlight of his room, Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom, An angel, writing in a book of gold. Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, And to the Presence in the room he said, "What writest thou?" The Vision raised its head, And, with a look made of all sweet accord, Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord." "And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," Replied the Angel. Abou spoke, more low, But cheerily still; and said, "I pray thee, then, Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." The angel wrote and vanished. The next night It came again, with a great wakening light, And showed the names whom love of God had blessed, And lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest.

--_Leigh Hunt_.

SPELLING

LESSON 19

There are a few prepositions which might really be called derivative prepositions.

1. A few prepositions are formed from verbs. These are really participle prepositions, for they are the present participles of the verbs but have come to be used like prepositions. These are such as _concerning_, _excepting_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _during_, _according_, etc. Nearly all of these participle prepositions can be expressed by a preposition phrase, as for example, we can either say; I wrote _regarding_ these facts, or I wrote you _in regard to_ these facts. I mentioned them all _excepting_ the last, or, I mentioned them all _with the exception of_ the last. I have gone _according_ to the directions, or, I have gone _in accord with_ the directions.

2. Derivative prepositions are also formed by prefixing _a_ to other parts of speech, as _along_, _around_, _abroad_, etc. Strictly speaking these might be called compound prepositions for the prefix _a_ is really from the preposition _on_.

3. We have also compound prepositions formed:

By uniting two prepositions, as _into_, _within_, _throughout_, etc.

By uniting a preposition and some other part of speech, usually a noun or an adjective, as _beside_, _below_ and _beyond_.

We also have a number of compound verbs which are made by prefixing a preposition to a verb. Some of these compound words have quite a different meaning from the meaning conveyed by the two words used separately; as for example, the compound verb _withstand_, derived from the preposition _with_ and the verb _stand_, has almost the opposite meaning from _stand with_.

Our spelling lesson this week includes a number of these compound verbs formed by the use of the verb and a preposition. Look up the meaning in the dictionary. Use them in sentences in the compound form; then the two words separately as a verb and a preposition and note the difference in the meaning.

+Monday+

Upset Withdraw Outrun Overlook Understand

+Tuesday+

Oversee Undergo Outnumber Withhold Overcome

+Wednesday+

Overflow Undertake Overreach Overthrow Outshine

+Thursday+

Overhear Withstand Overgrow Overhaul Overrun

+Friday+

Concerning Regarding Respecting According Excepting

+Saturday+

Against Throughout Around Between Beneath

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 20

Dear Comrade:

We are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of speech. We have spent some little time on the study of these parts of speech, but it has been time well spent. We cannot use good English and construct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate knowledge of the words we use in sentence building. As soon as we finish the study of the parts of speech, we will spend several weeks in sentence building. This will give us a review of these lessons in which we have studied separate words.

The English language is one of the most interesting of all to study. It is the most truly international of all languages, for the English language contains words from almost every language in the world. Did you ever stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as well as in other things? We can be as narrowly patriotic concerning words as concerning anything else.

Nations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their language as barbarians. Germany, perhaps, possesses as strong a nationalistic spirit as any country, and in Germany this spirit has found expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all foreign words out of the German language. They have published handbooks of native words for almost every department of modern life. They insist that the people use these words, instead of foreign importations. The German State takes great pride in the German language and considers it the most perfect of any spoken today. The rulers of Germany believe that it is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations speak the German language. In conquered Poland, only German is permitted to be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce. The patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection between purity of language and purity of race.

In English, however, we have the beginnings of an international speech. Our civilization is derived from various sources. Here in America we are truly the melting-pot of the nations, and this is mirrored forth in our language which is, in a way, a melting-pot also, in which have been thrown words from every tongue. Those for whom nationalism is an important thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed language, but to those of us to whom Internationalism is not an empty word, but a living ideal, an international language becomes also part of the ideal.

There is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained a command of the English language. Pay especial attention to the quotations given in each lesson. These are quotations from the very best literature. If there are any of them that arouse your interest and you would like to read more from the same author, write us and we shall be glad to furnish you full information concerning further reading.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CONJUNCTIONS

+328.+ You remember that in Lesson 3, where we studied the parts of speech, we found that we had another connective word besides the preposition,--the conjunction.

A preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other. The conjunction plays a different part as a connective, for it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses. Note the following sentences:

Shall we be men _or_ machines? We must struggle for ourselves _and_ for our children. We pray for peace _but_ furnish ammunition for war.

The use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition, for, by its use, where two subjects have the same predicate or two predicates have the same subject, we can combine it all into one sentence.

You will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us. If we did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would have to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition. If we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things, without conjunctions, we would have each time to repeat the entire statement. Try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of conjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective words play in our power of expression.

Without the use of the conjunction, you would necessarily use a great many short expressions and repeat the same words again and again, and your description would be a jerky, tiresome, unsatisfactory piece of writing.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the following sentences, writing in separate sentences the clauses that are united by the conjunctions:

1. The birds are singing _and_ spring is here. 2. We talk of peace, _but_ war still rages. 3. The unemployed cannot find work _and_ they are dying of hunger. 4. We believed in war for defense _and_ every nation is now fighting for defense. 5. We believe in education _and_ we are struggling for universal education. 6. The old order is fast passing _and_ the new order is rapidly appearing. 7. Profit is the keynote of the present, _but_ service shall be the keynote of the future. 8. All children should be in school, _but_ thousands must earn their bread.

Note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and each clause must contain a subject and a predicate.

Exercise 2

Rewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a repetition of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a paragraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can:

One hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education. As a result we have our public schools of today. Our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression. Our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression. Our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of such liberty as we enjoy. Our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal. Our public school system is the most democratic of our institutions. There has been a subtle subversion of the ideal. The public school system has been made to serve the master class. We have spent millions to make the ideal a reality. Have we realized the ideal? Is there universal education? Is there education for every child beneath the flag? The grounds of our public schools have cost millions. The buildings have cost millions. The courses of study are many. They are varied. They are elaborate. But the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast. The children of the workers do not enjoy this feast.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS

+329.+ Conjunctions are divided into classes, as are other parts of speech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence.

We are united _and_ we shall win. _When_ we are united, we shall win.

In the first sentence the conjunction _and_ connects the two clauses, _we are united_ and _we shall win_. They are both independent clauses, neither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance. But by the use of the conjunction _when_, instead of the conjunction _and_, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a difference in saying, _We are united and we shall win_, and _When we are united we shall win_.

By connecting these two statements with the conjunction _when_, we have made of the clause, _we are united_, a dependent clause, it modifies the verb phrase _shall win_. It tells _when_ we shall win, just as much as if we had used an _adverb_ to modify the verb phrase, and had said, _We shall win tomorrow_, instead of, _We shall win when we are united_.

So in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions, the conjunction _and_, which connects clauses of equal rank or order, and the conjunction _when_, which connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

+330.+ So the conjunctions like _and_ are called co-ordinate conjunctions. _Co-ordinate_ means literally of equal rank or order. Conjunctions like _when_ are called sub-ordinate conjunctions. _Sub-ordinate_ means of inferior rank or order.

So we have our definitions:

+331.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or clauses.+

+A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses having the same rank.+

+A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.+

CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

+332.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of equal rank.+ The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are; _and_, _but_, _or_, _nor_.

+333.+ But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs, which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not always conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial meaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the connection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus:

I am not in favor of the motion, _nevertheless_ I shall vote for it. The deputies voted for the war appropriation, _notwithstanding_ they had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda. I did not believe in the change, _however_ I did not oppose it.

+334.+ The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial meaning also, are; _therefore_, _hence_, _still_, _besides_, _consequently_, _yet_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _else_, _than_, _also_, _accordingly_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _otherwise_, _however_, _so_ and _furthermore_.

These conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve to introduce and connect new statements.

+335.+ We often use these conjunctions, and also, _and_, _but_, _or_, and _nor_, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to connect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph, thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it.

+336.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.+

NOUNS

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more _nouns_ used as the subject of a verb. As:

_Death_ and _disaster_ follow in the wake of war.

In this sentence, _death_ is just as much the subject of the verb _follow_ as is the word _disaster_, but no more so. You can omit either of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They are both of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and neither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the subject of the sentence. This is called the _compound subject_, for it consists of two simple subjects.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the _object_ of a verb.

He studies history and science.

In this sentence the words _history_ and _science_ are both used as objects of the verb _studies_.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a _preposition_.

He called for the letters and the papers.

In this sentence _letters_ and _papers_ are both objects of the preposition _for_, connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_.

Exercise 3

Note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under compound subjects.

1. John and Henry are going home. 2. Music and painting are fine arts. 3. The grounds and buildings of our public schools have cost millions. 4. The time calls for brave men and women. 5. We struggle for truth and freedom. 6. Will you study English or arithmetic? 7. Education and organization are necessary for success. 8. We must learn the truth about production and distribution. 9. We demand justice and liberty. 10. The great struggle is between the working class and the ruling class.

PRONOUNS

+337.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns.+

These are used in the same way as nouns,--either as subject or object. Nouns have the same form whether used as subject or object. Pronouns, however, have different forms when used as the object. Here is where we often make mistakes in the use of pronouns. When the pronouns are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are used in the same construction;--if they are used as subjects both must be used in the subject form;--if they are used as objects, both must be used in the object form. For example, it is incorrect to say, _He told the story to her and I_. Here _her_ is properly used in the object form, for it is the object of the preposition _to_; the pronoun _I_ connected with _her_ by the use of the conjunction _and_ is also the object of the preposition _to_, and the object form should be used. You would not say, _He told the story to I_. The sentence should read, _He told the story to her and me_.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _subject_ of a sentence, as for example:

_She_ and _I_ arrived today.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _object_ of the verb, as for example:

Did you call _her_ or _me_?