Part 2

The best of everything is none too good for you. It is your right, your heritage, and the best in the English language will bring you into the company and comradeship of the men and women who have striven and toiled for humanity, who will talk to you of dreams and deeds worth while, who will place in your hands the key to a new world.

A COMPLETE THOUGHT

+12.+ When we want to express a thought we use more than one word. Words are the symbols of ideas, but a thought is the expression of the relation between ideas. For example, I say _man_, and you get an idea or an image in your mind of a man, but I have not said anything about any man. But if I say, _Man works_, then I have expressed a thought. I have related the idea of a man and the idea of work and have expressed a complete thought.

So we express our thoughts by _groups of words_. The very smallest group of words which will express a complete thought must, therefore, contain two words. If I say _men_, _fire_, _flowers_, and stop, you wonder what I mean, for I have not expressed a thought. Or, I might say, _work_, _burns_, _bloom_, and you would still be in the dark as to my meaning; but, when I say, _Men work_, _Fire burns_, _Flowers bloom_, you understand, for I have told you my complete thought. I have put two words together in a way to make sense; I have formed a sentence.

+13.+ If we say, _Go_ or _Wait_, in the form of a command or entreaty, the single word seems to make complete sense and to form a sentence in itself. But this is only because _you_, who are to do the going or the waiting, is clearly implied. The words _go_ or _wait_, by themselves, do not make sense or form a sentence unless they are uttered in the commanding or beseeching tone of voice which makes you understand that _You go_ or _You wait_ is the intended meaning. With the exception of words used in this way as a command or entreaty, it is always necessary to use at least two words to express a complete thought.

But will any two words make a sentence--express a complete thought?

+14.+ Which of these combinations of words are sentences and which are not?

Busy men. Men travel. Snow flies. Blue sky. Red flag. Rustling trees. Workers strike. Bees sting. Grass grows. Cold winds. Green fields. Happy children.

_Busy men_ does not express a complete thought. We are wondering _busy men do what?_ But, _men travel_ is a complete thought. It makes sense and forms a sentence, and tells us what men _do_. In the words, _busy men_, we have spoken the name of something but have made no assertion concerning it. In the two words, _men travel_, we have spoken the name _men_ and we have told what they _do_.

If we were walking down the street together we might say:

The street is crowded to-day. Does the open road attract you? See the jostling crowds.

Or if we were discussing the class struggle, we might say:

Two classes have always existed. To which class do you belong? Join your class in the struggle.

In every one of these six groups of words we have a complete thought expressed. Each of these groups of words we call a sentence.

+15.+ +A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.+

Exercise 2

Write in each blank space the word necessary to express a complete thought.

Men...... ......fade.

Leaves...... ......bloom.

Water...... ......run.

Fire...... ......write.

Women...... ......grow.

Children...... ......speak.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

+16.+ We have found that every sentence must have at least two words, one word to name that about which something is said and another word which does the saying or makes the assertion. In the sentence, _Men work_, we have these two parts; _men_ which is the part about which something is said, and _work_ which tells what men do.

+The part about which something is said is called the subject.+

In this sentence, _Men work_, _men_, therefore, is the subject, for it names that about which something is said.

+17.+ +The part that asserts or says something about the subject is called the predicate.+

Therefore in this sentence, _Men work_, _work_ is the predicate. In the following sentences draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate, thus, _~Birds~ =fly=_.

Ships sail. Soldiers fight. Flowers fade. Horses neigh. Flags wave. Snow comes. War rages. Winds blow. Fish swim.

+18.+ We may add other words to the subject or the predicate and so enlarge their meaning, as for instance we may say:

The stately ships sail proudly away. The war in Europe rages furiously. The soldiers in the army fight like men gone mad.

Yet in every one of these sentences you will find the subject and the predicate,--_Ships sail_, _War rages_, _Soldiers fight_.

Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate, and it is a very important part of the study of sentences to be able to distinguish quickly and readily the subject and the predicate. Find that about which something is said, and that will always be the subject. Find that which is said about the subject, and that will be the predicate.

+Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.+

+The subject of a sentence names that about which something is said.+

+The predicate tells that which is said about the subject.+

Exercise 3

In the following sentences add other words to the subject and to the predicate to enlarge their meaning, then draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate:

Ships sail. Tides flow. Stars shine. Rain falls. Children play. Nature sleeps. Waves break. War rages. Birds sing.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences the subject and the predicate have other words added to enlarge their meaning. Find the subject and predicate and draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate, as in the sentence,

_The ~workers~ of the world =build= palaces for other people._

1. Our success lies in solidarity. 2. New occasions teach new duties. 3. Two classes exist in the world. 4. Labor creates all wealth. 5. The workers fight all battles. 6. Our time calls for earnest deeds. 7. Knowledge unlocks the door of life. 8. Ignorance bars the path to progress. 9. Few people think for themselves. 10. Hope stirs us to action.

SPELLING

LESSON 1

+Spelling is the process of naming or writing in proper order the letters of a word.+ There is nothing that marks us so quickly as lacking in the qualities that go to make up a good education as our inability to spell the words most commonly used.

Spelling in English is rather difficult. If each letter represented but one sound, spelling would be an easy matter. Every word would be spelled just as it sounds. This is the goal of those who advocate phonetic spelling. Phonetic spelling simply means spelling according to sound. But our alphabet does not have a letter for every sound.

There are some forty-two different sounds used in English words and we have only twenty-six letters in the alphabet. Therefore some letters must do duty for several sounds. Then we have words which contain letters which are not sounded at all when the word is pronounced, so, all in all, spelling is a matter of memorizing.

The best way to become an accurate speller is to read much, to observe closely the forms of words and to write frequently. Always spell any word of which you are uncertain aloud several times and write it out several times. In this way you have aided the memory both through the eye and through the ear. If you are not sure of the spelling of a word do not use it until you have looked it up in the dictionary and made sure.

The words in this lesson are taken out of Lesson 1, Plain English Course. There are thirty in all, five for each day of the week. (1) Look up the meaning in the dictionary. (2) Learn the correct spelling. (3) Learn the correct pronunciation. (4) Use the word in a sentence of your own construction. (5) Use it during the day in your conversation; strive to make it a part of your working vocabulary.

+Monday+

Mode English Grammar Expression Complete

+Tuesday+

Language Emotion Group Mastery Dictionary

+Wednesday+

Thought Symbol Ability Idea Knowledge

+Thursday+

Subject Predicate Vocabulary Practice History

+Friday+

Memory Sentence Write Right Purpose

+Saturday+

Propose Growth Learn Teach Pronounce

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 2

Dear Comrade:

Review Lesson 1 before taking up this lesson. Do not try to learn by rote the contents of these lessons. Our endeavor is to make you see the reason for every rule and definition before they are given. We want you to see unfolding before you the development of language and through this evolution you can catch a glimpse of the developing life of man. Language like customs, religion, government, has grown with the economic advancement of man. As man has evolved on the economic plane, the material plane, as he has improved his means of providing for himself food and clothes and shelter, he has developed a language suited to his needs.

So we can trace the growth of the race as we study the development of language from the sign language of the primitive savage to the language of the philosopher of today by which he makes known to us the story of the stars, and the innermost secrets of our hearts and minds. Civilization began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and the use of writing. So the study of language becomes not a dull and stupid conning of useless rules and formulas, but an absorbing study of a living, growing, changing thing that mirrors forth the very life of man.

Think while you study. As you look for the definition of words in your dictionary and realize how many shades of meaning we can express in words, remember that this power is a heritage that comes to us from a long past of incessant struggle.

We of to-day are also writing history in words. By our efforts we are adding new words to the language and giving old words a richer meaning. _Brotherhood_, _justice_, for example! The world is coming to understand these glorious words more fully and giving them a new interpretation.

You will see a new beauty and glory in words after you have finished this course and you will have a mastery of this wonderful language of ours.

Watch carefully the use of words in your reading. Especially this week distinguish the nouns and verbs. Use your dictionary constantly and add a few words to your vocabulary every day.

Whenever there is a word used in these lessons which you do not thoroughly understand, look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Make a list in your note book of the words you look up and at the end of the week go over them again and see if you have them clearly in mind. Watch also the pronunciation of the words. Do not try to do everything all at once, nor should you be discouraged if your progress seems slow. We approach the goal one step at a time and each step takes us nearer and nearer. Just keep steadily at it, Comrade.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES

+19.+ We have found that we use sentences to express our thoughts. But we also find that we use these sentences in different ways for different purposes. Can you notice any difference in the following sentences?

Two classes have always existed. To which class do you belong? Join your class in the struggle.

When I say, _Two classes have always existed_, I am making a simple assertion, stating what I know or believe to be true.

When I say, _To which class do you belong?_ I am asking a question.

When I say, _Join your class in the struggle_, I am giving a command or making a request.

+20.+ +These three kinds of sentences are called assertive, interrogative and imperative.+

+An assertive sentence states a fact or an opinion.+

+An interrogative sentence asks a question.+

+An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request or expresses a wish.+

+21.+ Any of these three kinds of sentences may be exclamatory; that is, it may express surprise, excitement, impatience, or some other emotion. For example:

Hurrah! Freedom is coming!

This is an assertion expressed as an exclamation.

Oh! Why should war continue?

Here we have a question in the form of an exclamation.

Come! Keep your courage up.

In this, we have a command, an imperative sentence, expressed in the form of an exclamation.

+An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, excitement or some other emotion.+

In these three forms of sentences, the assertive, the interrogative and the imperative, together with the exclamatory, we are able to express every thought and feeling which demands expression, either for practical or artistic purposes.

The sentence is the basis of spoken and written language and as we trace its development we trace the history of the evolution of man and the growth of his power of expression, as he has developed his powers of mind.

+22.+ +Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.+

+Every assertive and imperative sentence should end with a period.+

+Every interrogative sentence should end with a question mark.+

The word in an exclamatory sentence which expresses strong emotion is followed by an exclamation point. The sentence itself if in interrogative form should be followed by a question mark; if in the assertive or the imperative form it may be followed either by an exclamation point or a period.

Exercise 1

Mark the assertive sentences among the following with an _a_ in the blank space. Mark the interrogative sentences with a _q_ for question; the imperative sentences with a _c_ for command; and the exclamatory with an _e_ for exclamation.

1. ...... Books are the true levelers. 2. ...... Put not your trust in princes. 3. ...... To err is human; to forgive divine. 4. ...... What are the rights of a child? 5. ...... Seize common occasions and make them great. 6. ...... Not until all are free, is any free. 7. ...... Freemen! Shall not we demand our own? 8. ...... Is a world of happiness but a Utopian dream? 9. ...... He who will not work, shall not eat. 10. ...... Strike at the polls for freedom! 11. ...... Do the majority want social justice? 12. ...... A friend is the hope of the heart. 13. ...... How beautiful is the vision of peace! 14. ...... Acquire the thinking habit. 15. ...... Is it glorious to die for our country? 16. ...... Lo! Women are waking and claiming their own! 17. ...... Claim your right to the best. 18. ...... What is the highest good? 19. ...... Workers of the world, unite! 20. ...... To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.

WORDS--THEIR USES

+23.+ We have learned from our study that we use sentences to express our thoughts. These sentences are made up of words; therefore we call words _parts of speech_. Words are only fractions or parts of speech, and it is by combining them into sentences that we are able to express our thoughts.

There are many thousands of words in the English language. It would be impossible for us to study each word separately. But these words, like people, are divided into classes, so we can study each class of words. These thousands of words are divided into classes much as people are, or rather as people ought to be; for words are divided into classes according to the work which they do. In the Industrial Commonwealth there will be no upper or lower class, but men will be divided into groups according to the work which they do. There will be various industrial groups, groups of agricultural workers, groups of clerical workers, etc. So words are divided into classes according to the work which they do in helping us to express our ideas.

+24.+ +Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their use in sentences.+

+There are eight of these classes of words, called parts of speech.+

THE NAMES OF THINGS

+25.+ What a word _does_ determines what part of speech it is. When primitive man, long ago, first began to use words, in all probability the first words which he invented were those used to name familiar objects about him. He invented a word for _man_, _boy_, _tree_, _animal_, etc. Gradually, all the things he met in his daily life received a name. About one half of the words in our language are of this class, the _names_ of things.

Every word which is used as a name of something is called a _noun_. This word _noun_ is derived from the Latin word which means _name_, so it is quite the same thing as saying _name_. Notice the following sentences:

Boys run. Fish swim. Horses neigh. Soldiers march. Flags wave. Flowers fade. Girls study. Winds blow. Men work.

All of the words used like _boys_, _girls_, _fish_, _horses_, _soldiers_, _flag_, _winds_, _flowers_ and _men_, are the names of objects, therefore all of these words are _nouns_. The subject of a sentence is always a noun or a word used as a noun. However, we may use in a sentence many nouns besides the noun which is used as the subject, the noun about which the statement is made. We will study the use of these nouns later in our lessons.

_The famous palace of the kings of the Moors, at Granada, in Spain, was called the Alhambra._ We have six nouns in this sentence, _palace_, _kings_, _Moors_, _Granada_, _Spain_ and _Alhambra_, but the noun _palace_ is the noun which is the subject--the noun which is the name of that about which something is said. _Palace_ is the subject; and _was called_ is the predicate in this sentence.

+26.+ +A noun is a word used as the name of something.+

Now we want to learn to distinguish every word that is used as a name. Pick out the nouns as you read your books and papers until you are able to tell every word which is used as a noun, the name of something.

In the following paragraph, the nouns are printed in italics. Carefully study these nouns:

The _fire_ in the _grate_, the _lamp_ by the _bedside_, the _water_ in the _tumbler_, the _fly_ on the _ceiling_ above, the _flower_ in the _vase_ on the _table_, all _things_ have their _history_ and can reveal to us _nature's_ invisible _forces_.

Exercise 2

Underscore every noun in the following quotation:

The whole history of the earth has been one of gradual development, of progress, of slow and painful climbing through the ages. Not only have the hills and the mountains, the rivers and the stars, the trees and the cattle, the beasts and the birds, been developing; but man himself--his mind and his body--has been developing. Men are marvelous little creatures; they have weighed the sun in their balances, measured the stars and analyzed the light and beauty of the rainbow; they have sounded the depths of the ocean; they have learned how the sun and the mountains were born and the rivers were laid in their mighty beds; they have learned how the seas became salt, what the stars are made of. They have learned so much, and yet when it comes to matters of time and space, and law and motion, they still know so little. The only man who is conscious of his ignorance is he who has learned a great deal.--_McMillan_.

WORDS THAT ASSERT

+27.+ After the primitive man had invented names for the things about him, probably his next step was to invent words of action. He very naturally wanted to tell what all of these various things _did_. So the words that tell what things do, the words of action, the words that assert, came into the language. A child follows much the same development. As you can readily observe, it first names the objects about it, then learns the words that tell what these objects do.

So the words that tell what things _do_, become the second class of words. These words we call _verbs_. The word _verb_, like the word _noun_, is taken into our language from the Latin. In Latin, the word _verbum_ means _the word_; and the verb is practically _the_ word in a sentence, for we cannot have a sentence without a verb. You may string a number of words together, but if you do not have an asserting word, you will not have a sentence.

Notice the following sentences:

Men work. Flowers fade. Snow flies. Winds blow.

In these sentences, the words _work_, _fade_, _flies_ and _blow_, are the words used to assert or say something of the subject, hence they are the verbs in these sentences.

+28.+ Sometimes it takes more than one word to express the action or make the assertion. Notice the following sentences:

The men are working. The boy has been studying.

In the first sentence it takes two words, _are working_, to make the assertion; in the second, three are required, _has been studying_. These groups of words are called _verb phrases_.

+29.+ +A verb is a word that asserts.+

+A verb phrase is a group of words used as a single verb.+

The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master. It is not hard to find the verb in short sentences, but in longer sentences it is sometimes difficult.

For example:

The sun shines. The man walks. The boys strike.

We very easily see that _shine_, _walk_ and _strike_ are the verbs in these sentences. But let us add other words, as for example:

The sun shines brightly. The man walks for his health. The boys strike the dog.

Now we are very apt to confuse the verb with the words which state _how_ and _why_ the action is performed, or the _object_ towards which the action is directed. But in these sentences, _shine_ and _walks_ and _strike_ are still the verbs, just as in the first sentences. The verb asserts the action; the other words merely give additional information about _how_ or _why_ or _upon what_ the action is performed.

+30.+ Another thing which makes it difficult for us to distinguish verbs in English is that the same word may be used both as a noun and as a verb; but always remember that words are separated into classes according to the work which they do. When a word is used as a _name_ it is a _noun_; when it is used as an _asserting_ word it is a _verb_. Note the following sentences:

The _play_ made the child tired. The children _play_ in the yard.

In the first sentence _play_ is a noun, the subject of the verb _made_. In the second sentence _play_ is the verb, telling what the children _do_. Always classify words according to the work which they perform in the sentence. This will help you very much in finding your verb.

+31.+ Then we have some verbs which do not assert action but express rather a connection or relation between the subject and some other word or words. For example:

The dog belongs to the man. The girl is happy.

In these sentences _belongs_ and _is_ are the verbs. _Belongs_ asserts or shows the relation between _the dog_ and _the man_. _Is_ shows the relation between _the girl_ and _happy_. If we simply say _girl_ and _happy_, we do not show any connection between them or make any statement relating the two, but when we say, _The girl is happy_, we are asserting something, and the word _is_ makes the assertion.

Or when we say, _The girl was happy_, or _The girl will be_ or _may be happy_, in each of these cases, it is the verb or verb phrase _was_ or _will be_ or _may be_, that asserts or shows the relation between the subject _girl_ and the descriptive word _happy_. You will observe that the verbs _will be_ and _may be_ are composed of more than one word and are _verb phrases_.

We will study the verb in succeeding lessons, but let us remember from this lesson that the word or group of words that makes the assertion in the sentence is the verb. Remember too that every sentence must contain a verb.

Get this basic principle firmly fixed in mind that what a word _does_ decides what it _is_--to what part of speech it belongs, and that every class of words fulfills its own function in sentence building.

+32.+ Remember:--