Part 18

We are most there. I see her most every day.

These sentences should read:

We are almost there. I see her almost every day.

_Most_ is the superlative degree of _much_, and should be used only in that meaning.

+We often use the adjective _real_ in place of _very_ or _quite_, to modify an adverb or an adjective.+

For example, we say:

I was real glad to know it. She looked real nice. You must come real soon.

Say instead:

I am very glad to know it. She looked very nice. You must come quite soon.

_Really_ is the adverb form of the adjective _real_. You might have said:

I am really glad to know it.

But never use _real_ when you mean _very_ or _quite_ or _really_.

+We use the adjective _some_ many times when we should use the adverb _somewhat_.+ For example, we say:

I am some anxious to hear from him. I was some tired after my trip.

What we intended to say was:

I am somewhat anxious to hear from him. I was somewhat tired after my trip.

+Do not use _what for_ when you mean _why_.+ Do not say:

What did you do that for?

Or worse still,

What for did you do that?

Say:

Why did you do that?

+Do not use _worse_ in place of _more_.+ Do not say:

I want to go worse than I ever did.

Say:

I want to go _more_ than I ever did.

+Observe the distinction between the words _further_ and _farther_.+ Farther always refers to distance, or extent. For example:

He could go no farther that day. We will go farther into the matter some other time.

Further means more. For example:

He would say nothing further in regard to the subject.

+Never use _good_ as an adverb+. _Good_ is always an adjective. _Well_ is the adverb form. _Good_ and _well_ are compared in the same way, _good_, _better_, _best_, and _well_, _better_, _best_. So _better_ and _best_ can be used either as adjectives or adverbs; but _good_ is always an adjective. Do not say, _He talks good_. Say, _He talks well_. Note that _ill_ is both an adjective and an adverb and that _illy_ is always incorrect.

Exercise 3

Correct the adverbs in the following sentences. All but two of these sentences are wrong.

1. Come quick, I need you. 2. The boy feels badly. 3. Give me that there pencil. 4. I am some hungry. 5. The people learn slow. 6. He never stopped for nothing. 7. What did you say that for? 8. This here machine won't run. 9. I make a mistake most every time. 10. Watch careful every word. 11. The man works good. 12. The tone sounds harsh. 13. I don't want no dinner. 14. I hope it comes real soon. 15. I want to learn worse than ever. 16. She looked lovely. 17. She smiled sweet. 18. He sees good for one so old. 19. She answered correct. 20. He won't say nothing about it. 21. I will be real glad to see you. 22. That tastes sweetly. 23. The man acted too hasty. 24. We had most reached home. 25. They ride too rapid.

DO NOT USE TOO MANY ADVERBS

+298.+ Like adjectives it is better to use adverbs sparingly. This is especially true of the adverbs used to intensify our meaning. Do not use the adverbs, _very_, _awfully_, etc., with every other word. It makes our speech sound like that of a gushing school girl, to whom everything is _very, awfully sweet_. More than that, it does not leave us any words to use when we really want to be intense in speech. Save these words until the right occasion comes to use them.

Exercise 4

Adverbs should always be placed where there can be no doubt as to what they are intended to modify. A mistake in placing the adverb in the sentence often alters the meaning of the sentence. Choose the right word in each of the following sentences:

1. He looked glad--gladly when I told him the news. 2. Slaves have always been treated harsh--harshly. 3. I prefer my eggs boiled soft--softly. 4. The lecturer was tolerable--tolerably well informed. 5. Speak slower--more slowly so I can understand you. 6. The evening bells sound sweet--sweetly. 7. The house appears comfortable--comfortably and pleasant--pleasantly. 8. If you will come quick--quickly you can hear the music. 9. I was exceeding--exceedingly glad to hear from you. 10. The bashful young man appeared very awkward--awkwardly. 11. The young lady looked beautiful--beautifully and she sang beautiful--beautifully. 12. I looked quick--quickly in the direction of the sound. 13. The sun is shining bright--brightly today and the grass looks green--greenly.

SPELLING

LESSON 17

In our study of adjectives we have found that we use them to express some quality possessed by a noun or pronoun which they modify. You will recall when we studied nouns, we had one class of nouns, called abstract nouns, which were the names of qualities. So we find that from these adjectives expressing quality we form nouns which we use as the name of that quality.

For example from the adjective _happy_, we form the noun _happiness_, which is the name of the quality described by the adjective _happy_, by the addition of the suffix _ness_. We use this suffix _ness_ quite often in forming these derivative nouns from adjectives but there are other suffixes also which we use; as for example, the suffix _ty_ as in _security_, formed from the adjective _secure_, changing the _e_ to _i_ and adding the suffix _ty_. When the word ends in _t_ we sometimes add only _y_ as in _honesty_, derived from the adjective _honest_.

You remember that an abstract noun may express not only quality but also action, considered apart from the actor; so abstract nouns may be made from verbs. For example:

_Running_, from the verb _run_; _settlement_, from the verb _settle_.

In our lesson for this week the list for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains adjectives of quality from which abstract nouns expressing quality can be made, by the addition of the proper suffix, either _ness_, _y_, _ty_ or _tion_. The list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday consists of verbs from which abstract nouns can be made by the addition of the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_.

Make from each adjective and verb in this week's lesson an abstract noun by the addition of the proper suffix. Be able to distinguish between the use of the qualifying adjective and the noun expressing quality.

+Monday+

Stately Forgetful Real Concise Noble

+Tuesday+

Slender Empty Equal Righteous Deliberate

+Wednesday+

Submissive Dreadful Eager Sincere Resolute

+Thursday+ Enlist Defile Adorn Nourish Commence

+Friday+

Content Adjust Induce Indict Adjourn

+Saturday+

Discourage Refine Acquire Enrich Infringe

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 18

Dear Comrade:

Last week we finished the study of adverbs and we found that they were a very important part of our vocabulary, and that most of us needed a greater supply than we at present possess. This is true of both adverbs and adjectives. While we do not use as many adverbs as adjectives in our ordinary speech, nevertheless, adverbs are a very important factor in expression. A great many adjectives can be readily turned into adverbs. They are adjectives when they are used to describe a noun, but by the addition of a suffix, they become adverbs used to describe the action expressed by the verb. So in adding to our stock of adjectives we also add adverbs to our vocabulary as well.

Watch your speech this week and make a list of the adverbs which you use most commonly, then go to your dictionary and see if you cannot find synonyms for these adverbs. Try using these synonyms for awhile and give the adverbs which you have been using for so long, a well earned rest. Remember that our vocabulary, and the power to use it, is like our muscles, it can only grow and develop by exercise.

The best exercise which you can possibly find for this purpose is conversation. We spend much more time in talking than in reading or in writing. Conversation is an inexpensive pleasure and it does not even require leisure always, for we can talk as we work; yet our conversation can become a great source of inspiration and of influence as well as a pleasant pastime. But do not spend your time in vapid and unprofitable conversation. Surely there is some one in the list of your acquaintances who would like to talk of things worth while. Hunt up this some one and spend some portion of your day in profitable conversation.

Remember also that a limited vocabulary means also a limited mental development. Did you ever stop to think that when we think clearly we think in words? Our thinking capacity is limited, unless we have the words to follow our ideas out to their logical conclusions.

This matter of vocabulary is a matter, too, that is exceedingly practical. It means success or failure to us in the work which we would like to do in the world. A command of words means added power and efficiency; it means the power to control, or at least affect, our environment; it means the power over men and things; it means the difference between being people of ability and influence and being obscure, inefficient members of society.

So feel when you are spending your time in increasing your vocabulary that you are not only adding to your enjoyment of life but that you are doing yourself the best practical turn; you are increasing your efficiency in putting yourself in a position where you can make your influence felt upon the people and circumstances about you. This effort upon your part will bear practical fruit in your every day life.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

A GROUP OF WORDS

+299.+ We have studied about the independent parts of speech, that is, the nouns and pronouns and verbs. These are independent because with them we can form sentences without the help of other words. And these are the only three parts of speech which are so independent--with which we can form complete sentences. Then we have studied also the words that modify,--that is, the words that are used with nouns and pronouns and verbs to describe and explain more fully the ideas which they express. So we have studied adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns; and adverbs, which modify verbs or adjectives or other adverbs.

+300.+ The adjectives and adverbs which we have studied thus far are single words; but we find that we may use little groups of words in about the same way, to express the same idea which we have expressed in the single adjective or adverb. For example, we may say:

Strong men, _or_, men of strength. City men, _or_, men from the city. Jobless men, _or_, men without jobs. Moneyed men, _or_, men with money.

These groups of words like, _of strength_, _from the city_, _without jobs_, and _with money_, express the same ideas that are expressed in the single adjectives, _strong_, _city_, _jobless_ and _moneyed_.

You recall that we defined any group of words used as a single word as a _phrase_; so these groups of words are phrases which are used as adjectives. The phrase, _of strength_, modifies the noun _men_, just as the adjective _strong_ modifies the noun _men_. So we may call these phrases which modify nouns, or which may be used to modify pronouns also, _adjective phrases_, for they are groups of words used as adjectives.

Exercise 1

Change the adjectives which are printed in italics in the following sentences into phrases:

1. _Strong_ men know no fear. 2. She bought a _Turkish_ rug. 3. He followed the _river_ bed. 4. _Fashionable_ women are parasites. 5. He left on his _homeward_ journey. 6. _Sensible_ men readily understand their economic slavery. 7. _Intelligent_ people will not always submit to robbery. 8. _Senseless_ arguments cannot convince us of the truth.

USED AS ADVERBS

+301.+ These phrases may be used in the place of single adverbs also. You remember an adverb is a word that modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb. Let us see if we can not use a phrase or a group of words in the place of a single adverb. For example:

The man works rapidly, or, The man works with rapidity. The man works now, or, The man works at this time. The man works here, or, The man works at this place.

In these sentences _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_ are single adverbs modifying the verb _work_. The phrases, _with rapidity_, _at this time_, and _at this place_, express practically the same ideas, conveyed by the single adverbs, _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_. These phrases modify the verb in exactly the same manner as the single adverbs. Therefore we call these groups of words used as single adverbs, _adverb phrases_.

We also use adverbs to modify adjectives. Let us see if we can use adverb phrases in the same way:

Rockefeller is _excessively_ rich; or, Rockefeller is rich _to excess_. He is _bodily_ perfect, but _mentally_ weak; or, He is perfect _in body_ but weak _in mind_.

In the sentences above, the adverb _excessively_ modifies the adjective _rich_; the same meaning is expressed in the adverb phrase, _to excess_. In the sentence, _He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak_, the adverb _bodily_ modifies the adjective _perfect_ and the adverb _mentally_ modifies the adjective _weak_. In the last sentence, the same meaning is expressed by the adverb phrases, _in body_ and _in mind_. These phrases modify the adjectives _perfect_ and _weak_, just as do the single adverbs _bodily_ and _mentally_.

+302.+ We can use a phrase in the place of almost any adverb or adjective. It very often happens, however, that there is no adjective or adverb which we can use to exactly express our meaning and we are forced to use a phrase. For example:

He bought the large house _by the river_. The man _on the train_ is going _to the city_. He came _from the country_.

It is impossible to find single words that express the meaning of these phrases, _by the river_, _on the train_, _to the city_, and _from the country_. You could not say the _river house_; that is not what you mean. You mean the large house _by the river_, yet the phrase _by the river_ modifies and describes the house quite as much as the adjective _large_. It is an adjective phrase used to modify the noun _house_, yet it would be impossible to express its meaning in a single word.

Exercise 2

Which phrases in the following sentences are used as adjectives and which phrases are used as adverbs?

Change these phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think of any that express the same meaning.

1. Men lived _in caves_ long ago. 2. Man's discovery _of fire_ was the beginning _of industry_. 3. _After this discovery_, men lived _in groups_. 4. The work _of the world_ is done _by machinery_. 5. The workers _of Europe_ were betrayed. 6. They are fighting _for their country_. 7. The struggle _for markets_ is the cause _of war_. 8. The history _of the world_ records the struggle _of the workers_. 9. The idea _of democracy_ is equal opportunity _for all_. 10. The invention _of the printing press_ placed knowledge _within the reach_ _of the masses_. 11. If you will study _with diligence_ you can learn _with ease_. 12. This knowledge will be _of great value_ _to you_. 13. Diplomacy means that the plans _of nations_ are made _in secret_. 14. The men _in the factory_ are all paid _by the month_. 15. They are afraid to take a trip _through Europe_ _at this time_.

Exercise 3

Use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb in the following sentences:

1. The men in the trenches are fighting _bravely_. 2. An _uneducated_ man is _easily_ exploited. 3. Our _educational_ system is inadequate. 4. The _skilled_ workers must be organized. 5. _Careless_ men endanger the lives of others. 6. The plans have been _carefully_ laid. 7. _Ambitious_ men often trample on the rights of others. 8. Shall our education be controlled by _wealthy_ men? 9. We want to live _courageously_. 10. We want to face the future _fearlessly_. 11. We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor. 12. By constant practice we can learn to speak _effectively_. 13. This book will be a _valuable_ addition to your library. 14. The number of _unemployed_ men _constantly_ increases. 15. The men mastered each step _thoroughly_ as they proceeded. 16. In order to express one's self _eloquently_ it is necessary to think _clearly_. 17. We must consecrate ourselves _completely_ to the cause of humanity. 18. A _kind_ act is its own reward. 19. _Experienced_ workers can _more easily_ secure positions. 20. He spoke _thoughtlessly_ but the people listened _eagerly_. 21. The soldier was rewarded for his _heroic_ deed. 22. He is an _honorable_ man and I am not surprised at this _brave_ act. 23. A _prudent_ man should be chosen to fill that _important_ office.

PREPOSITIONS

+303.+ Have you noticed that all of these phrases, which we have been studying and using as adjectives and adverbs, begin with a little word like _of_, _with_, _from_, _in_, _at_ or _by_, which connects the phrase with the word it modifies? We could scarcely express our meaning without these little words. They are connecting words and fill an important function. These words usually come first in the phrase. For this reason, they are called _prepositions_, which means _to place before_.

Let us see what a useful place these little words fill in our language. Suppose we were watching the play of some boys outside our windows and were reporting their hiding place. We might say:

The boys are hiding _in_ the bushes. The boys are hiding _among_ the bushes. The boys are hiding _under_ the bushes. The boys are hiding _behind_ the bushes. The boys are hiding _beyond_ the bushes.

These sentences are all alike except the prepositions _in_, _among_, _under_, _behind_ and _beyond_. If you read the sentences and leave out these prepositions entirely, you will see that nobody could possibly tell what connection the _bushes_ had with the rest of the sentence. The prepositions are necessary to express the relation of the word _bushes_ to the rest of the sentence.

But this is not all. You can readily see that the use of a different preposition changes the meaning of the sentence. It means quite a different thing to say, _The boys are hiding in the bushes_, and to say, _The boys are hiding beyond the bushes_. So the preposition has a great deal to do with the true expression of our ideas.

The noun _bushes_ is used as the object of the preposition, and the preposition shows the relation of its object to the word which it modifies. You remember that nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or as object, but if you are using a pronoun after a preposition, always use the object form of the pronoun. For example:

I bought the book from _him_. I took the message to _them_. I found the place for _her_.

In these sentences the pronouns, _him_, _them_, and _her_ are used as objects of the prepositions _from_, _to_ and _for_. So we have used the object forms of these pronouns.

+304+. The noun or pronoun that follows the preposition, and is used with it to make a phrase, is the object of the preposition. The preposition is used to show the relation that exists between its object and the word the object modifies. In the sentence above, _The boys are hiding in the bushes_, the preposition _in_ shows the relationship between the verb phrase, _are hiding_ and the object of the preposition, _bushes_.

The noun or pronoun which is the object of a preposition may also have its modifiers. In the sentences used about the noun _bush_, which is the object of the prepositions used, is modified by the adjective _the_. Other modifiers might also be added, as for example:

The boys are hiding in the tall, thick bushes.

The entire phrase, _in the tall, thick bushes_, is made up of the preposition _in_, its object _bushes_ and the modifiers of bushes, _the_, _tall_ and _thick_.

+305+. The preposition, with its object and the modifiers of the object, forms a phrase which we call a _prepositional phrase_. These prepositional phrases may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs, so we have our definitions:

+A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some other word.+

+A phrase is a group of words used as a single word.+

+A prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition and its object and modifiers.+

+An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adjective.+

+An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adverb.+

+306.+ Here is a list of the most common and most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence:

above about across after against along around among at before behind below beneath beside between beyond by down for from in into of off on over to toward through up upon under with within without

ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS

+307.+ Many of the words that are used as prepositions are used also as adverbs. It may be a little confusing to tell whether the word is an adverb or a preposition, but if you will remember this simple rule you will have no trouble:

+A preposition is always followed by either a noun or a pronoun as its object, while an adverb never has an object.+

So when you find a word, that can be used either as a preposition or an adverb, used alone in a sentence without an object, it is an adverb; but if it is followed by an object, then it is a preposition. This brings again to our minds the fundamental rule which we have laid down, that every word is classified according to the work which it does in a sentence. The work of a preposition is to show the relation between its object and the word which that object modifies. So whenever a word is used in this way it is a preposition. For example: _He went about his business_.

Here, _about_ is a preposition and _business_ is its object. But in the sentence, _He is able to be about_, _about_ is used as an adverb. It has no object.

_He sailed before the mast._ Here, _before_ is a preposition introducing the phrase _before the mast_, which modifies the verb _sailed_. But in the sentence, _I told you that before_, _before_ is an adverb modifying the verb _told_.

By applying this rule you can always readily determine whether the word in question is an adverb or a preposition.

Exercise 4

Tell whether the words printed in italics in the following sentences, are prepositions or adverbs and the reason why:

1. He came _across_ the street. 2. He is _without_ work. 3. Come _in_. 4. He lives _near_. 5. He brought it _for_ me. 6. I cannot get _across_. 7. We will go _outside_. 8. This is _between_ you and me. 9. He can go _without_. 10. Stay _in_ the house. 11. Do not come _near_ me. 12. They all went _aboard_ at six o'clock. 13. He enlisted _in_ the navy and sailed _before_ the mast. 14. I do not know what lies _beyond_. 15. I will soon be _through_. 16. The aeroplane flew _above_ the city for hours.

PHRASE PREPOSITIONS

+308.+ Sometimes we have a preposition made up of several words which we have used so commonly together that they are used as a single word and we call the entire phrase a preposition. As, for example: _According to_--_on account of_--_by means of_, etc.