Part 14

There are a few more rules governing the spelling of derivative words. Words ending in silent _e_ keep the _e_ before the suffix beginning with a consonant. Notice the following words:

excite excitement like likeness force forceful shame shameless lone lonesome live lively

Words ending in silent _e_ drop the _e_ before the suffix beginning with a vowel, as:

excite excitable live living grieve grievous force forcible

Some words ending in silent _e_ retain the _e_ before the suffix beginning with a vowel, to prevent a change in the pronunciation or to preserve the identity of the word. Notice the following words:

peace peaceable courage courageous singe singeing change changeable shoe shoeing notice noticeable

These are words ending in the soft sound of _c_ and _g_, where the _e_ is retained to preserve the correct pronunciation of the _c_ and _g_, and with some few words like _toe_, _dye_, etc., where the dropping of the _e_ would lose the identity of the word.

The _e_ is dropped in a few words before the suffix beginning with a consonant, as in _wholly_, _nursling_, _judgment_, _wisdom_, _lodgment_.

Add the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_ to the words in Monday's lesson; the suffix _able_ to the words for Tuesday and Wednesday; the suffixes _some_ and _ous_ to the words for Thursday; the suffixes _ly_ or _ness_ to the words for Friday and Saturday.

+Monday+

Excite Advise Chastise Disfranchise Enslave

+Tuesday+

Manage Receive Blame Exchange Imagine

+Wednesday+

Admire Service Desire Peace Pronounce

+Thursday+

Whole Meddle Courage Advantage Outrage

+Friday+

Accurate Positive False Definite Distinct

+Saturday+

Agreeable Careful Awful Sure Secure

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 14

Dear Comrade:

You remember our definition of a word; a word is the sign of an idea. In our lessons we have been studying the different kinds of words which we use in the expression of our complete thoughts. Probably the first step in the development of language was to name the objects about us. Then the next logical step would be to invent words which would tell what these objects did. So we have our nouns, which are the names of things; our verbs, which tell what these things do; and in these we have the foundation for spoken and written speech. We soon found, however, that the constant repetition of a name was tiresome and annoying, so we invented words which we could use in place of these nouns; and we have pronouns.

All of the things about us possess certain qualities and our next great need was for words to describe these qualities; so we have adjectives. Each adjective is a sign of an idea. It adds its part to the expression of our complete thought. So we find that each part of speech comes logically in its place to fill a certain need. Without any one of them, we would be crippled in our power of expression. Each different word is the sign of an idea and the combination of these ideas as represented by the various signs gives us the complete expression of our thought.

So primitive man in the development of written speech had signs to express the various things about him. Naturally his first sign was a picture, as nearly as he could draw it, of the object itself. If he wanted to tell you about a tree he drew a picture of the tree; the picture of a man represented a man, and so on. You will notice among children that this is the first development in their endeavor to express their thoughts in writing. They draw pictures. The average small child cannot understand why you read those strange marks on the page. They want you to read the pictures. To their mind that is the only way to communicate ideas.

These early forefathers of ours grew to be very adept at this picture writing. We have examples of this among the Indians of our own country. There is a picture on the face of a big rock on the shores of Lake Superior which records an expedition across the lake led by a noted Indian chief. Canoes are shown in the picture with the crew denoted by a series of upright strokes and there is a picture of the chief on horseback. You or I would have great difficulty in reading this picture writing, but an Indian could read it right off just as we would read a written page. Aids to memory such as knotted strings and tally sticks were the first step toward written speech. This picture writing was the second step toward the development of written speech.

We owe a great deal to the work which these primitive ancestors of ours accomplished. It took them years and years to develop through these different stages and our rapid development of the last few centuries has only been made possible because of this slow and patient building of the foundation. An understanding of this helps us to appreciate the place we occupy in this great struggle of the ages. The power of written speech opens up to us such tremendous possibilities. Let us make the most of them, that we too may hand on worth while things to those who follow us.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES

+242.+ Adjectives, like nouns and pronouns, are divided into classes. Adjectives are divided into two main classes, _qualifying_ and _limiting_.

+243.+ An adjective which qualifies a noun is one which names some quality which is possessed by the word which it modifies. When we say, _Trees grow_, we are making a general statement; that is, we are saying something that is true of any kind of trees. We have not described any particular tree. But when we say, _The tall trees grow_, _The old trees grow_, _The young trees grow_, the words _tall_, _old_ and _young_ describe certain qualities of the trees, which separate them into classes. So these adjectives are _qualifying adjectives_.

An adjective qualifies a noun when it attributes some quality to the noun, as, _The brave man_, _The sweet apple_, _The pretty girl_, _The large house_, etc.

+244.+ But if we say, _this tree_, _that tree_, _some trees_, _many trees_, _three trees_, or _four trees_, we are not giving any quality of the tree, but are pointing out a particular tree or trees and limiting the word to the ones pointed out. So such adjectives as _the_, _this_, _that_, _some_, _many_, _three_ and _four_ are limiting adjectives. An adjective limits a noun when it restricts or limits its meaning as to quantity or number.

+245.+ So adjectives are divided into two classes, _qualifying_ adjectives and _limiting_ adjectives.

+Words that limit or qualify other words are called _modifiers_ because they modify or affect the meaning of the words to which they are added.+ So adjectives are modifiers of the nouns and pronouns to which they are added because they modify or qualify or limit the meaning of the noun or pronoun.

The limiting adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _how many_. The qualifying adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _what kind_.

+246.+ +A qualifying adjective is an adjective which describes the noun it modifies by attributing to it some quality.+

+A limiting adjective is an adjective which merely shows which one or how many, without describing the noun it modifies.+

HOW TO DISCOVER AN ADJECTIVE

+247.+ Sometimes the noun may have several adjectives qualifying or modifying it; as,

The beautiful, old elm tree shades the lawn.

_The_, _beautiful_, _old_ and _elm_, all modify _tree_, telling something of the qualities or pointing out which tree we are speaking of. You can discover an adjective in a sentence by asking the questions, _which_, _what kind_, or _how many_; and the words that answer these questions will be the adjectives in the sentence. For example in this sentence:

Those three immense factories employ thousands of men.

_Factories_ is the noun, subject of the sentence. _Which_ factory is indicated by the adjective _those_. _How many_ factories is indicated by the adjective _three_. _What kind_ of factories is indicated by the adjective _immense_. So we have three adjectives answering the three questions, _which_, _what kind_ and _how many_.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences the adjectives are printed in _italics_. Study them carefully and determine which are qualifying and which are limiting adjectives. Note that the possessive nouns and possessive pronouns are _not_ adjectives. _Its_ in the phrases _its cruel fangs_ and _its savage claws_, is a possessive pronoun, third person singular. In the last sentence _beggar's_, _miser's_, and _Ingersoll's_, are nouns in the possessive form.

_This terrible_ war in Europe is slaughtering _the_ working-class. _Gaunt_ famine follows war. A _docile_, _meek_, _humble_, working-class makes war _possible_. _The shrieking_ shell snarls like a _living_ thing; like _some wild_ beast in _ferocious_ glee it thrusts its _cruel_ fangs in earth and rock and rends _living_ flesh with its _savage_ claws. Its _fetid_ breath of _poison_ powder scorches in _the autumn_ winds. _Shattered_ bones, _torn_ flesh and _flowing_ blood were mingled on _the_ battlefield with _broken_ swords and _split_ rifles. _The best modern_ rifles will force _a_ bullet through _five human_ bodies at _a_ range of _twelve hundred_ feet. _The pitiful_ dead, _slain_ in war, sleep under _the solemn_ pines, _the sad_ hemlock, _the tearful_ willow and _the embracing_ vines. A world without _the_ beggar's _outstretched_ palm, _the_ miser's _heartless_ _stony_ stare, _the piteous_ wail of want, _the livid_ lips of lies, _the cruel_ eyes of scorn, was Ingersoll's vision of _the_ future.

QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES

+248.+ Qualifying adjectives are also called _descriptive_ adjectives because they describe the noun. They answer the questions _which_ and _what kind_.

You remember we found in the beginning of our study of English, that words were grouped into classes according to the work which they do in the sentence, not according to the form of the word itself. For instance, we have already found that some words, without changing their form, may be used either as a noun or as a verb. Take the word _oil_, for instance. I may say, _I oil the engine_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a verb telling what I do. But I may say, _The oil is gone_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a noun, subject of the sentence. The part of speech to which a word belongs in the English language, always depends upon the work which it does in the sentence.

+1.+ So we have nouns which are used as descriptive adjectives, for example the word _oil_, which we have found we can use either as a noun or a verb, may also be used as an adjective. For example; I may say, _the oil tank_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a descriptive adjective modifying the word _tank_. So also we may say, _the oak tree_, _the stone curb_, _the earth wall_. In these expressions _oak_, _stone_ and _earth_ are nouns used as descriptive adjectives.

+2.+ We have descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns, as French, English, American. These are called proper adjectives; and since all proper nouns must begin with a capital letter, these proper adjectives, also, should always begin with a capital letter.

+3.+ We have also descriptive adjectives derived from verbs as _active_, _talkative_, _movable_, _desirable_, derived by the addition of suffixes to the verbs _act_, _talk_, _move_ and _desire_.

LIMITING ADJECTIVES

+249.+ Limiting adjectives are also divided into classes, the _numerals_, the _demonstratives_ and the _articles_.

Numeral Adjectives

+250.+ Numeral adjectives are those which limit nouns as to number or order. They are such adjectives as _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, etc., and _first_, _second_ and _third_, etc., as for example:

_Three_ men applied for work. The train ran at the rate of _forty_ miles an hour. There have always been _two_ classes in the world. The _first_ martyr to anti-militarism was Jaures. The _eighteenth_ day of March is the anniversary of the Paris Commune.

In these sentences the adjectives _three_, _forty_, _two_, _first_ and _eighteenth_ are all numeral adjectives. They limit the nouns which they modify as to number or order.

+Adjectives that limit nouns as to number or order are called numeral adjectives. Numeral adjectives answer the question how many or in what order.+

Demonstratives

+251.+ We have also a class of adjectives which are used to point out some particular person or thing. These are called _demonstrative_ adjectives. Demonstrate means literally _to point out_. So these adjectives point out from a number of things, one particular thing to our attention. These demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, _those_, _these_, _yonder_, _former_, _latter_ and _same_.

_These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of _this_ and _that_. _This_ and _these_ are used to point out things near at hand. _That_ and _those_ are used to point out things more distant, as _This is my book_. _These are my papers_, meaning _this book_ or _these papers_, close to me. By, _That is my pencil_ and _Those are my letters_, I mean _that pencil_, and _those letters_, which are farther away from me.

_Former_ and _latter_ are used to show which of two things already mentioned is referred to, and to point out things in point of time, not of place. For example, we may say:

We no longer observe the _former_ customs, but rather prefer the _latter_. He did not like his _former_ job but this _latter_ job pleases him.

You understand from this that we have been discussing and describing two kinds of work, and that the first in point of time was unpleasant and the second pleasant.

The demonstrative adjective _same_ refers to something of which we have just spoken, as for example, _He has gone to work, I must do the same thing_. These demonstrative adjectives answer the question which, so when you wish to discover a demonstrative in a sentence, ask the question _which_, and the answer will be the demonstrative adjective.

Exercise 2

1. _This_ study is very interesting. 2. _These_ comrades will stand by us. 3. _That_ solution will never deceive the people. 4. _Those_ books have opened our eyes. 5. _Yonder_ battle appals the world. 6. _Former_ investigations have had no results. 7. _This latter_ decision has reversed the _former_. 8. The class struggle has persisted through the centuries; we are engaged in the _same_ struggle.

Make sentences of your own containing these demonstrative adjectives.

ARTICLES

+252.+ We have three adjectives which are used so commonly that we have put them in a class by themselves. These three little words are _a_, _an_ and _the_, and we call them articles. The word _article_ literally means a little joint or limb, and these three little words are so closely connected with the nouns with which they are used that they seem to be a part or joint or limb of the noun itself, and so we have called them articles.

_A_ and _an_ are called the _indefinite_ articles because they point out an object in a very indefinite manner. _The_ is called the _definite_ article for it points out in a more definite way.

We use _a_ before words beginning with a consonant sound, as _a man_, _a tree_, _a book_; and we use _an_ before words beginning with a vowel sound, as _an apple_, _an editor_, _an orange_, _an heir_. In _heir_ the _h_ is silent, and we say _an_ because the word begins with a vowel sound. _A_ is used before words beginning with _u_ because long _u_ is equivalent in sound to a consonant, for the blending of the sounds of which long _u_ is composed produces the initial sound of _y_, which is a consonant sound. For example, we say, _a university_, _a useful work_, etc., and not _an university_. Before words beginning with short _u_, use _an_, as, _an upstart_, etc.

In deciding whether to use _a_ or _an_, watch the initial _sound_ of the word, not the initial _letter_. If it is a vowel sound use _an_, if a consonant sound, use _a_.

Exercise 3

Underscore the correct article in the following sentences:

1. Bring me an--a apple. 2. He is a--an able orator. 3. A--an heir was born to the German King. 4. He built a--an house for his family. 5. He is an--a honest man. 6. He is a--an undertaker. 7. I had to take a--an upper berth. 8. He joined a--an union. 9. It is a--an unique book. 10. He is a--an unruly member of society. 11. He told a--an untruth. 12. He wears a--an uniform. 13. It is a--an honor to be chosen.

+253.+ When a singular noun is modified by several adjectives, only one of the articles _an_ or _a_ must be used if the noun denotes but _one_ object; but if the noun denotes more than one object the article must be repeated before each noun. For example, I say, _A red, white and blue flag_. You know I mean but one flag, containing the three colors, red, white and blue. But if I say, _A red, a white and a blue flag_, you know I mean three flags, one red, one white, and one blue.

Note the use of the article in the following sentences:

He wears a black and white suit. He wears a black and a white suit. He sold a red and white cow. He sold a red and a white cow. He bought a gas and coal stove. He bought a gas and a coal stove.

The first sentences in each of the above series refers to only one object. The second sentences all refer to two objects.

+254.+ There are some rules concerning the article _the_ that it is well to know because we do not always say what we wish to say, if we do not observe these rules or customs of speech. For example, I say, _The editor and publisher of this book is unknown_. I have used the article _the_ but once, and I mean that the editor and publisher is one person. But I may say, _The editor and the publisher of this book are well known_. In this sentence I have used the article _the_ twice, _the_ editor and _the_ publisher, and I mean that the editor and the publisher are two different persons.

So when two or more nouns following each other denote the same person or thing, the article is not repeated, but when the nouns denote different persons or things, the article must be repeated before each noun. Be sure to use the proper form of the verb.

Note the following sentences and underscore the proper verb to complete the meaning:

The secretary and treasurer were--was here. The secretary and the treasurer were--was elected. The singer and artist were--was with me. The singer and the artist were--was on the program.

Sometimes we have two things so closely associated in use that they may be considered as forming a single idea, so that we may use the article before the first one only. For example:

The pen and ink is gone. He bought a horse and buggy. The bread and butter is on the plate.

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES

+255.+ You remember we found in the study of pronouns that we have interrogative pronouns which we use in asking questions when we do not know the name of the object concerning which we are asking. We also have adjectives which we use in asking questions when we do not know the number or quality of the object concerning which we are asking. For example:

_Which_ book did you enjoy most? _What_ work are you doing now? _What_ machine did you order?

_Which_ and _what_ are the interrogative adjectives in these sentences.

+Interrogative adjectives are adjectives used in asking questions.+

INDEFINITES

+256.+ We have one more class of adjectives called indefinites.

+An indefinite adjective is one that does not denote any particular person or thing.+

All such adjectives as _each_, _every_, _either_, _neither_, _some_, _any_, _many_, _much_, _few_, _all_, _both_, _no_, _none_, _several_ and _certain_ are indefinite adjectives. We use them when we are not speaking of any particular person or thing, but are speaking in a broad, general sense and in an indefinite manner.

+257.+ The interrogative adjectives are sometimes used in this indefinite way. They are sometimes used to modify nouns when a direct question is not asked, and they are then used, not as interrogative adjectives, but as indefinite adjectives. For example:

He did not know which party to join. I have not learned what time he will go.

In these sentences _which_ and _what_ are not used to ask questions, but are used to describe an unknown object.

Exercise 4

All the words in italics are adjectives. Decide to which class each adjective belongs.

Note in this exercise the compound words used as adjectives, as: _earth-born_, _self-made_, _new-lit_, _blood-rusted_. Look up the meaning of these adjectives and see if you can use other adjectives in their places and keep the same meaning. Note the use of _fellest_.

Slavery, _the earth-born_ Cyclops, _fellest_ of _the giant_ brood, Sons of _brutish_ Force and Darkness, who have drenched _the_ earth with blood, _Famished_ in his _self-made_ desert, _blinded_ by our _purer_ day, Gropes in yet _unblasted_ regions for his _miserable_ prey;-- Shall we guide his _gory_ fingers where our _helpless_ children play? They have rights who dare maintain them; we are traitors to our sires, _Smothering_ in their _holy_ ashes Freedom's _new-lit_ altar-fires; Shall we make their creed our jailer? Shall we, in our haste to slay, From the tombs of _the old_ prophets steal _the funeral_ lamps away To light up _the_ martyr-fagots round _the_ prophets of to-day?

_New_ occasions teach _new_ duties; Time makes _ancient_ good, _uncouth_; They must upward still, and onward, who would keep _abreast_ of Truth; Lo, before us gleam her camp-fires! We ourselves must Pilgrims be, Launch our Mayflower, and steer boldly through _the desperate winter_ sea, Nor attempt _the_ Future's portal with _the_ Past's _blood-rusted_ key. --_Lowell_.

Exercise 5

The following is from Oscar Wilde's story of _The Young King_. Oscar Wilde was a master of English, and if you have the opportunity, read all of this beautiful story and watch his use of adjectives. Mark the adjectives in this excerpt and use them in sentences of your own.

And as the young King slept he dreamed a dream, and this was his dream. He thought that he was standing in a long, low attic, amidst the whirr and clatter of many looms. The meager daylight peered in through the grated windows and showed him the gaunt figures of the weavers, bending over their cases. Pale, sickly-looking children were crouched on the huge crossbeams. As the shuttles dashed through the warp they lifted up the heavy battens, and when the shuttles stopped they let the battens fall and pressed the threads together. Their faces were pinched with famine, and their thin hands shook and trembled. Some haggard women were seated at a table, sewing. A horrible odor filled the place. The air was foul and heavy, and the walls dripped and streamed with damp.

The young King went over to one of the weavers and stood by him and watched him.

And the weaver looked at him angrily and said, "Why art thou watching me? Art thou a spy set on us by our master?"

"Who is thy master?" asked the young King.

"Our master!" cried the weaver, bitterly. "He is a man like myself. Indeed, there is but this difference between us--that he wears fine clothes while I go in rags, and that while I am weak from hunger he suffers not a little from overfeeding."

"The land is free," said the young King, "and thou art no man's slave."