Pitman's Commercial Spanish Grammar (2nd ed.)

Chapter 1

Chapter 13,402 wordsPublic domain

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PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

C. A. TOLEDANO

1917

PREFACE

With the best intention of justifying Messrs. PITMAN'S confidence in entrusting me with the compilation of a Spanish Grammar to form part of the series of "Commercial Grammars," I set to work to produce a book which, while avoiding pedantry and the agglomeration of superfluous and intricate rules which puzzle the student, should equally avoid falling into the extreme of coarseness which debases the subject under study, or the scrappiness resulting in gaps that perplex and discourage him. I have tried to be brief and clear in the rules given.

The vocabulary has been chosen carefully, avoiding the artificiality of too much commercial technology, but keeping constantly in view the object of the Series, viz., to produce grammars specially suitable for students preparing for a commercial career.

Whether I have succeeded in my efforts it is for the public to judge. I can only say that, after more than twenty-five years' teaching of Spanish in all its stages, privately, at the Manchester University and in the large classes of our public Institutions, I have tried my best to give the fruits of my experience to any interested young people who may be eager to learn a language beautiful, noble, and most useful.

I do not claim to have reached perfection. I only trust the book, such as it presents itself, will be of real help to the student.

C.A. TOLEDANO.

MANCHESTER, 1911.

COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

ALPHABET.

A (_a_) G (_ge_) M (_eme_) Rr (_erre_) B (_be_) H (_hache_) N (_ene_) S (_ese_) C (_ce_) I (_i_) Ñ (_eñe_) T (_te_) Ch (_che_) J (_jota_) O (_o_) U (_u_) D (_de_) K (_ka_) P (_pe_) V (_ve_) E (_e_) L (_ele_) Q (_cu_) X (_equis_) F (_efe_) Ll (_elle_) R (_ere_) Y (_y griega_ or _ye_) Z (_zeta_)

K (_ka_) and W (_doble ve_) are only found in foreign words used in Spanish.

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS.

_a_ as English a in f_a_ther _e_[1] " a " f_a_te[2] _i_ " i " magaz_i_ne _o_[1] " o " n_o_te[2] _u_ " u " r_u_le

These five sounds _never_ vary, except that they are a little longer when they are stressed and shorter when they are not, as Yo amo (I love),[3] Amigo (friend), El cielo (heaven), Celeste (heavenly), Un recibo (a receipt), Interés (interest), Yo como (I eat), Contar (to count), Un buque (a ship), Una butaca (an armchair).

_Y_ is considered a vowel in the conjunction _y_ (and), and at the end of a word, as Rey (king), Hoy (to-day).

[Footnote 1: _E_ and _o_ are sounded a little more open when they form a diphthong with _i_ and when they precede _r_ followed by a consonant or _r_ or _l_ final, as Fernando (Ferdinand), Un tercio (a third), El tercer año (the third year), Porfiar (to insist), Amor (love), Español (Spanish).]

[Footnote 2: The _a_ and _o_ of "fate" and "note" are not _pure vowel sounds_. In English the a is distinctly pronounced a-ee and o is pronounced o-oo.

In Spanish the first part _only_ of the two sounds is permissible.]

[Footnote 3: The examples given with their English equivalents should be learnt.

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.

There are no Diphthongs or Triphthongs in the English sense of two or three vowels meeting in one syllable and blending into a different sound, as "pause," "plough."

Every vowel is pronounced separately and each with its alphabetical sound, only the two or three vowels occurring in one syllable are pronounced rapidly, as Pausa (pause), Reino (kingdom), Cuenta (account), Buey (ox).

_A, E_ and _O_ never form diphthongs together. They may form diphthongs and triphthongs only in combination with _I_ and _U_.

CONSONANTS.

The Consonants are pronounced as in English with the following exceptions:

B is pronounced much more lightly than in English, with no pressure of the lips, as Libro (book), Brevedad (brevity).

C before _E_ and _I_--_th_ in "theatre," as La Cena (the supper), La Cerveza (the beer). Otherwise pronounced _K_ as in English, as Caja (case, box), Color (colour), Cúbico (cubic).

Ch _always_ as _ch_ in "church" (never hard as in "monarch"), as Chocolate (chocolate), Charla (prattle).

D at the end of a word or after a vowel is pronounced very softly and lightly, with a tinge of _th_ in "they," as Madrid, Amado (loved), Encarnado (red).

G before _E_ and _I_ is pronounced guttural, as El general (the general), El giro (the draft, bill). This sound is equal to _ch_ in the Scotch word "loch." In all other cases G is pronounced hard, as in the English word "gay"; as Gato (cat), Gobierno (government), Gusto (pleasure, taste).

H is a mute letter. (Although in Andalusia it is aspirated in certain words.)

J is always guttural, as Juan (John), Jornalero (day labourer), Junio (June), Reloj (watch, clock).

Ll--_ly_, stronger than _li_ in "pavilion," as Belleza (beauty), Folleto (leaflet).

Ñ--ny, stronger than _ni_ in "pinion," as Niño (child), Caña (cane), El otoño (autumn).

Q is only used before _ue_ and _ui_ (and the _u_ is then _mute_), as Querido (dear, beloved), Yo quiero (I want).

R as in English, but it is always rolled, as Caro (dear, expensive), Pérdida (loss). At the beginning of a word or when preceded by a consonant it is rolled more strongly, as La rosa (the rose), Deshonra (dishonour).

Rr always rolled strongly, as Carro (cart), El ferrocarril (the railway).

S always pronounced as _s_ in "soap," and never as in "as" or "sure."

T as in "tea," but never as _t_ in "nation." It must be pronounced softly, not explosive, as Fortuna (fortune), Cuatro (four).

V is pronounced much more lightly than in English, as Vino (wine), Vivir (to live). By the common people _V_ is often confounded with _B_, but educated Spaniards will always make the proper distinction.

Y--Spanish _I_.

Z--_th_ in "theatre," as Zarazas (cotton prints), Zorra (fox).

NOTE.--In modern Spanish Z is not used before _E_ or _I_, its place being supplied by _C_.

RULES ON PRONUNCIATION.

RULE I.--Every letter is pronounced. There are no mute letters as _b_ in "lamb" or _n_ in "autumn."

EXCEPTIONS--_H_ is not sounded as already explained in the alphabet. _U_ is not sounded in the following syllables: _que, qui, gue_ and _gui_, as Quedar (to remain), Quinta (villa), Guerra (war), Águila (eagle), unless the _u_ in _gue_ and _gui_ has the diaeresis, as Argüir (to argue), Vergüenza (shame).

RULE II.--No consonant is doubled except C and N. _C_ is found doubled in words like Acceder (to accede) when one _C_ is hard--_k_ and the other soft--_th_.

_N_ is found doubled in words having the prefix _in_, as Innoble (ignoble), Innavegable (unnavigable). Also in Perenne (perennial) and a very few more words.

_Ll_ and _Rr_ are treated as single letters.

RULE III.--The _stress of the voice_ falls on the last syllable but one in all words ending in a vowel or _S_ or _N_; otherwise it falls on the last syllable, as Una factura (an invoice), Facturas (invoices), Hermano (brother), Cartas (letters), Ellos tienen (they have), Azul (blue), Abril (April), Labor (labour), Feliz (happy).

In diphthongs and triphthongs the stress is not on _i_ or _u_, but falls on _a_, _e_ or _o_, as Reina (queen), Gracia (grace), Igual (equal), Cielo (heaven).

When the diphthong is formed by _i_ and _u_ the last one bears the stress, as Un viudo (a widower), La ciudad (the city), Luisa (Louise).

The numerous exceptions to the above rule are all marked by the written accent (´), as Facturó (he invoiced), Escribirá (he will write), Háblame (speak to me), Inglés (English), Alemán (German), Útil (useful), Jóvenes (young men).

The stress of the voice should fall _distinctly_ on the proper syllable according to the above rule, and the attention of the student must be earnestly called to this very important point.

A word in the plural maintains the stress on the same syllable as in its singular, as El océano (the ocean), Océanos (oceans), Cálculo (calculation), Cálculos (calculations), Inglés (Englishman), Ingleses (Englishmen); except Carácter (character), Caracteres (characters), Régimen (regime or rule), Regímenes (regimes or rules)--the latter hardly ever used in the plural.

SIGNS.

The Written Accent.

The only accent in Spanish is (´). It is used--

(1) To mark the exceptions to the _Rule of Stress_.

(2) To distinguish between two meanings of the same word, as El (the), Él (he); De (of), Que él dé (that he may give); Se (3rd person reflexive pronoun, "himself," etc.), Yo sé (I know); Más (more), Mas (but).

(3) In the following words established by use, as "ó" or "ú" (or), "é" (and), "á" (to).[4]

(4) In some words when used interrogatively, as Quién? (who?), Qué? (what?), Cuál? (which?), Cúyo? (whose?), Dónde? (where?).

(5) On _I_ and _U_ when they occur together with _A, E_ or _O_, the _I_ or _U_ not belonging to the same syllable, viz., not forming diphthong with _A, E_ or _O_, as Filosofía (philosophy), El continúa (he continues).

(6) On _I_ following _U_ when the _I_ does not form a diphthong, but stands as a separate syllable, as Concluído (concluded), Imbuído (imbued).

(7) On Éste (this), Ése and Aquél (that) when these words are stressed.

[Footnote 4: According to the last edition of the Grammar of the Spanish Academy, these words may now be written without the accent.]

Crema (Diaeresis).

The diaeresis is placed over _u_ in "güe" and "güi" when the _u_ is to be sounded.[5]

[Footnote 5: In poetry also to divide an ordinary diphthong into two syllables for the sake of rhythm.]

Tilde.

The tilde (~) is used on the letter _N_ to turn it into _Ñ_, as Mañana (morning) (in old Spanish spelt Mannana).

Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation.

These are used in Spanish both at the beginning and at the end of the question or exclamation, as ¿Qué quiere V.? (what do you want?), ¡Cuántos sufrimientos! (how much suffering!). Note that at the beginning they are reversed.

The other signs of punctuation are used as in English.

Capital letters are used as in English with the following exceptions--

(1) Adjectives of nationality are written with small letters, as Un libro inglés (an English book).

(2) Days of the week generally (and sometimes the months of the year) are written with small letters.

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.

After the first syllable each succeeding one _commences with a consonant_, as a-for-tu-na-da-men-te (fortunately), except when a prefix occurs before a primitive word,[6] as Organizar (to organise).

[Footnote 6: A few minor exceptions will be learnt by practice.]

Des-or-ga-ni-zar (to disorganise).

When two consonants occur together one letter belongs to one syllable and the other to the next, as--

Ac-ci-den-te (accident) Pe-ren-ne (perennial) Tem-po-ral-men-te (temporarily) In-me-dia-to (immediate)

EXCEPTION--_bl, br, pl, pr, cl, cr, dr, fl, fr, gl, gr_ and _tr_ are not divided, as--

A-blan-dar (to soften) Li-bro (book) A-pla-zar (to postpone) A-pre-ciar (to appreciate) De-cla-mar (to declaim) De-cre-tar (to decree) A-me-dren-tar (to frighten) Con-fla-gra-ción (conflagration) Re-fren-dar (to countersign) A-glo-me-rar (to agglomerate) A-gran-dar (to enlarge) En-con-trar (to meet)

If any of these combinations occur together with a third consonant, this of course will belong to the previous syllable, as

Em-bro-llar (to entangle).

If four consonants come together, two belong to the first syllable and two to the next, as Obs-tru-ir (to obstruct).

_Ll_ and _Rr_, being treated as single letters, must not be divided, as--

Ba-lle-na (whale) Una ca-lle (a street) A-lla-nar (to level) Tie-rra (earth)

LESSON I.

THE ARTICLE.

The =Definite Article= in Spanish is

=El= before a masculine[7] noun singular =La= " feminine[7] " "

[Footnote 7: Spanish nouns are all masculine or feminine. There are no _neuter nouns_.]

as--

El hombre (the man)--La mujer (the woman) El libro (the book)--La pluma (the pen)

El recibo (the receipt)--La cuenta (the account)

=Los= before a masculine noun plural =Las= " feminine " "

as--

Los muchachos (the boys)--Las señoras (the ladies) Los géneros (the goods)--Las facturas (the invoices) Los lápices (the pencils)--Las cartas (the letters).

The =Indefinite Article= is--

=Un= before a masculine noun singular =Una= " feminine " "

as--

Un amigo (a friend)--Una amiga (a lady-friend) Un padre (a father)--Una madre (a mother)

The Indefinite Article has no plural, but the Spanish plural forms "unos" (masc.) and "unas" (fem.) translate the English words "some" or "any," as Unos hermanos (some brothers), Unas hermanas (some sisters), Unos tinteros (some inkstands), Unas mesas (some tables). (The Spanish words "Algunos," "Algunas," are also used for the same purpose.)

NOTE 1.--Before a feminine noun _singular_ commencing with _a_ or _ha_ use =El= and =Un= instead of _La_ and _Una_ if such nouns are _stressed on the first syllable_, as El águila (the eagle), El agua (the water), El alma (the soul). (The plural is regular, as Las águilas (the eagles).)

NOTE 2.--The Definite Article has a "neuter form" which is =Lo=. _It cannot be used before a noun_ but before other parts of speech used to represent an abstract idea, as Yo amo lo bello (I love the beautiful, viz., all that which is beautiful), Lo sublime (the sublime, viz., all that which is sublime).

REGULAR VERBS.

_1st Conjugation_. Hablar (to speak). _Pres. Part._ Hablando (speaking). _Past Part._ Hablado (spoken).

_Present Tense, Indicative Mood_.

Yo hablo (I speak) Nosotros (_m._) hablamos (we speak) Nosotras (_f._) hablamos (we speak)

Tú hablas[8] (thou speakest) Vosotros (_m._) habláis (you speak) Vosotras (_f._) habláis (you speak)

Él _or_ Ella habla (he or she speaks) Ellos (_m._) hablan (they speak) Ellas (_f._) hablan (they speak) Usted habla (you speak)[9]. Ustedes hablan (you speak).[9]

[Footnote 8: The second person is only used in the familiar style, practically when in English the 2nd person would be addressed as "John" or "Frank" and not as "Mr. Smith" or "Mr. Brown."]

[Footnote 9: This is called the polite way of addressing and is the form in use. Note that the verb after it is in the _3rd person_, because "Usted," "Ustedes" (which can be abbreviated as V. Vs.) are contractions of Vuestra merced (your grace), Vuestras mercedes (your graces). V. ama = your grace _loves_.]

_2nd Conjugation_. Temer (to fear). _Pres. Part._ Temiendo. _Past Part_. Temido.

_Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood_.

Yo temo Nosotros (_m._) temenos Nosotras (_f._) temenos

Tú temes Vosotros (_m._) teméis Vosotras (_f._) teméis

Él teme Ellos (_m._) temen Ella teme Ellas (_f._) temen

V. teme Vs. temen

_3rd Conjugation_. Partir (to depart, to set out). _Pres. Part._ Partiendo. _Past Part_. Partido.

_Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood_.

Yo parto Nosotros (_m._) partimos Nosotras (_f._) partimos

Tú partes Vosotros (_m._) partís Vosotras (_f._) partís

Él parte Ellos (_m._) parten Ella parte Ellas (_f._) parten

V. parte Vs. parten

VOCABULARY.

=á=, to, at =amar=[10], to love =el árbol=, the tree =las botas=, the boots =el capitán=, the captain =la camisa=, the shirt =la casaca=[11], the coat =comprar=, to buy =la flor=, the flower =el hombre=, the man =el hermano=, the brother =la hermana=, the sister =el joven=, the young man =la joven=, the young woman =el lápiz=, the pencil =el libro=, the book =la madre=, the mother =mas=, but =más=, more =la mujer=, the woman =nosotros tenemos=, we have =el oro=, gold =el padre=, the father =los pantalones=, the trousers =el papel=, the paper =para=, for =la plata=, silver =la pluma=, the pen =el sombrero=, the hat =él tiene=, he has =V. tiene=, you (_sing._) have =Vs. tienen=, you (_pl._) have =la tinta=, the ink =el tintero=, the inkstand =*tener=,[10] to have, to possess =yo tengo=, I have =el viejo=, the old man =la vieja=, the old woman =la virtud=, virtue

[Footnote 10: The verbs given in this vocabulary and the following are regular (i.e., they are conjugated respectively as the model verbs given) _unless they are marked with an asterisk_.]

[Footnote 11: _Or_ americana, _more used now_.]

EXERCISE 1 (1).

Translate into English--

1. El hombre tiene una pluma.

2. La mujer tiene un libro.

3. ¿Tiene el padre un sombrero?

4. Nosotros tenemos el tintero del (of the) joven.

5. V. tiene el papel y (and) el lápiz de la madre.

6. Vs. tienen la tinta y el papel.

7. Las hermanas aman.

8. El oro y la plata son preciosos (are precious) mas la virtud es (is) más preciosa.

9. La vieja y la joven compran flores (flowers).

10. V. vende sombreros.

11. Vs. tienen las cartas.

12. ¿Compra[12] V. los pantalones?

13. El Señor (Mr.) Brown es hermano de Juan (John).

14. El sombrero, la americana, y las botas son míos (mine).

15. ¿Habla V.?

16. ¿Teme ella?

17. Ellos parten.

18. V. parte.

19. Nosotros compramos géneros (goods) y vendemos flores.

[Footnote 12: The auxiliary "Do" and "Did," used in English in interrogative and negative sentences, are not translated in Spanish.]

EXERCISE 2 (2).

Translate into Spanish--

1. The father, the mother, and the brother.

2. A pencil, a pen, and an inkstand.

3. The old man and the old woman.

4. A hat and some boots.

5. The shirt and the trousers.

6. I buy the tree.

7. He sells some flowers (flores).

8. I fear.

9. He fears.

10. We sell.

11. We set out.

12. You (_sing._) set out.

13. I buy.

14. He sells.

15. The brother and the sister sell.

16. They speak to the (al) man.

17. We set out for London (Londres).

18. The old woman has the hat.

19. The old man has the flower.

20. Who (quién) has the ink and a pen?

21. The father has the coat.

22. Gold is precious (es precioso) but virtue is more precious (preciosa).

23. I sell paper to the woman.

24. You (_sing._) fear.

25. You (_plu._) buy some flowers.

26. She speaks to the sister.

27. The father and the mother of the captain.

LESSON II. (Lección segunda.)

THE ARTICLE (_contd._).

The definite article _El_ is contracted with the preposition _de_ (of or from) into =Del= and with the preposition _A_, into _al_ as--

Del extranjero: Of _or_ from the foreigner. Al caballero español: To the Spanish gentleman.

These are the only contractions that occur in Spanish; with the other prepositions the article simply follows, as--

By, for, with, in, on, without, behind, the father: Por, Para, Con, En, Sobre, Sin, Tras, el padre.

The following are the _principal cases_ in which the definite article is used in Spanish and not in English--

1. Before nouns taken in a general sense, as--

El oro y la plata: Gold and silver. Los hombres ó las mujeres: Men or women.

2. Before titles denoting dignity and profession,[13] as--

El Señor Fulano: Mr. So-and-So. El Rey Jorge V.: King George V. El Profesor Rosales: Professor Rosales.

The only exception is "Don" (Mr.), only used before Christian names, as Don Francisco (Mr. Francis).

3. Generally before each of several nouns following each other when they are material possessions, as--

La casa y el jardín de mi hijo: My son's[14] house and garden. Las puertas y las ventanas de mi casa: The doors and windows of my house.

But--

La diligencia, devoción, y virtud de mi primo: the diligence, devotion and virtue of my cousin.

4. Before a proper noun qualified by an adjective, as--

El valiente Juan: Brave John.[15]

The following are the principal cases in which the indefinite article is used in English and not in Spanish--

1. Before a noun following the verb "to be," or other similar verbs, as--

Es capitán[16]: He is a captain. Soy francés: I am a Frenchman. Se hizo actor: He became an actor. Le elegimos miembro de esta sociedad: We elect him a member of this society. Fué elegido miembro: He was elected a member.

2. After "what" used in exclamations, as: Qué hermosa vista: What a fine view!

3. Before "hundred" and "thousand": 100--ciento, 1,000--mil.

[Footnote 13: Except when vocative, viz., calling a person or as an exclamation.]

[Footnote 14: The 's = possessive does not exist in Spanish. "My son's house" must always be translated as "the house of my son."]

[Footnote 15: Except when vocative, viz., calling a person or as an exclamation.]

[Footnote 16: Except, of course, when we particularize, as--Es un capitán que conocí en Paris: He is a captain I knew in Paris.]

_Imperfect Tense,[17] Indicative Mood_.

_Past Definite,[17] Indicative Mood_.

[Footnote 17: The Imperfect tense describes a past action or state _in progress_; the Past Definite narrates _an event_. Ex.: I met (_past def._)] Charles, who wore (_imp._) a black hat: Encontré á Carlos quien llevaba sombrero negro.]

[Footnote 18: The Subject-Pronoun may be left understood, and is generally omitted unless special stress is laid upon it.]

VOCABULARY.