Chapter XXIII. General conclusions 768

List of works and authors cited 777

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

PL. I-XI. Petroglyphs in Owens Valley, California 56-76 XII. Petroglyph in Maine 82 XIII. Petroglyphs in Nebraska 92 XIV. The Stone of the Giants. Mexico 134 XV. Powhatan’s mantle 210 XVI. Peruvian quipu and birch-bark drawings 226 XVII. Order of songs. Ojibwa 232 XVIII. Mnemonic songs. Ojibwa 236 XIX. Mnemonic songs. Ojibwa 244 XX. Lone-Dog’s winter count 266 XXI. Battiste Good’s cycles. A. D. 901-1000 290 XXII. Battiste Good’s cycles. A. D. 1141-1280 292 XXIII. Battiste Good’s cycles. A. D. 1421-1700 294 XXIV. Haida double thunder-bird 400 XXV. Haida dog-fish 402 XXVI. Oglala chiefs 420 XXVII. Oglala subchiefs 422 XXVIII. Mexican military insignia 432 XXIX. Mexican military insignia 434 XXX. Hidatsa dancers, bearing exploit marks 440 XXXI. Petroglyph in rock shelter, West Virginia 476 XXXII. Wasko and mythic raven, Haida 480 XXXIII. Mantle of invisibility 504 XXXIV. Mexican treatment of new-born children 542 XXXV. Education of Mexican children. Three to six years 544 XXXVI. Education of Mexican children. Seven to ten years 546 XXXVII. Education of Mexican children. Eleven to fourteen years 548 XXXVIII. Adoption of profession and marriage. Mexican 550 XXXIX. Map of Little Bighorn battlefield 564 XL. Battle of Little Bighorn. Indian camp 566 XLI. Battle of Little Bighorn. Soldiers charging Indian camp 568 XLII. Battle of Little Bighorn. Sioux charging soldiers 570 XLIII. Battle of Little Bighorn. Sioux fighting Custer’s battalion 572 XLIV. Battle of Little Bighorn. The dead Sioux 574 XLV. Battle of Little Bighorn. The dead Sioux 576 XLVI. Battle of Little Bighorn. Custer’s dead cavalry 578 XLVII. Battle of Little Bighorn. Indians leaving battle-ground 580 XLVIII. Battle of Little Bighorn. Indians leaving battle-ground 582 XLIX. Mexican symbols 614 L. Tablets at Ancon, Peru 706 LI. Thruston tablet, Tennessee 734 LII. Pictures on Dōtaku, Japan 736 LIII. German knights and Apache warriors 740 LIV. Dighton rock 762 FIG. 1-2. Palimpsests on Fairy rocks, Nova Scotia 40-41 3. Petroglyph on Vancouver island 44 4. Petroglyphs in Alaska 47 5-8. Petroglyphs in Arizona 48-50 9. Petroglyph in Shinumo canyon, Arizona 51 10. Petroglyph in Mound canyon, Arizona 52 11. Petroglyphs near Visalia, California 53 12-16. Petroglyphs at Tule river, California 54-57 17. View of Chalk grade petroglyphs, Owens valley, California 59 18. Petroglyphs in Death valley, California 60 19. Rattlesnake rock, Mojave desert, California 61 20. Petroglyph near San Marcos pass, California 62 21-22. Petroglyphs near San Marcos pass, California 62-63 23-28. Petroglyphs in Najowe valley, California 63-67 29-30. Petroglyphs near Santa Barbara, California 67-68 31. Petroglyphs in Azuza canyon, California 69 32-33. Petroglyphs in Santa Barbara county, California 70-71 34-35. Petroglyphs on the Rio Mancos, Colorado 73 36-37. Petroglyphs on the Rio San Juan 74-75 38. Petroglyphs in Georgia 76 39. Petroglyphs in Idaho, Shoshonean 77 40-41. The Piasa Petroglyph 78-79 42. Petroglyph on the Illinois river 79 43. Petroglyph near Alton, Illinois 80 44. Petroglyphs in Kansas 81 45. Bald Friar rock, Maryland 84 46. Slab from Bald Friar rock 85 47. Top of Bald Friar rock 85 48. Characters from Bald Friar rock 86 49. Dighton rock, Massachusetts 86 50. Petroglyphs at Pipestone, Minnesota 88 51. Petroglyphs in Brown’s valley, Minnesota 89 52-53. Characters from Nebraska petroglyphs 91-92 54. Petroglyphs on Carson river, Nevada 92 55. Petroglyphs at Reveillé, Nevada 94 56. Petroglyphs at Dead mountain, Nevada 95 57. Inscription rock, New Mexico 96 58-59. Petroglyphs at Ojo de Benado, New Mexico 97-98 60. Petroglyph at Esopus, New York 98 61. Paint rock, North Carolina 100 62. Petroglyphs on Paint rock, North Carolina 100 63. Newark Track rock, Ohio 101 64. Independence stone, Ohio 102 65. Barnesville Track rock, Ohio 103 66. Characters from Barnesville Track rock 103 67. Barnesville Track rock, No. 2 104 68. Petroglyphs, Wellsville, Ohio 104 69. Petroglyphs in Lake county, Oregon 106 70. Big Indian rock, Pennsylvania 107 71. Little Indian rock, Pennsylvania 108 72. Petroglyph at McCalls ferry, Pennsylvania 108 73. Petroglyph near Washington, Pennsylvania 109 74. Petroglyphs on “Indian God Rock,” Pennsylvania 110 75. Petroglyph at Millsboro, Pennsylvania 111 76. Petroglyphs near Layton, Pennsylvania 112 77-78. Glyphs in Fayette county, Pennsylvania 112-113 79. Petroglyphs in Roberts county, South Dakota 114 80. Petroglyphs near El Paso, Texas 116 81. Petroglyphs near Manti, Utah 118 82-85. Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah 118-120 86. Petroglyphs at Pipe Spring, Utah 120 87-88. Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah 120 89. Petroglyphs in Shinumo canyon, Utah 121 90. Petroglyphs in Tazewell county, Virginia 121 91. Petroglyphs in Browns cave, Wisconsin 126 92. Petroglyphs at Trempealeau, Wisconsin 127 93-95. Petroglyphs in Wind river valley, Wyoming 128-129 96-97. Petroglyphs near Sage creek, Wyoming 130 98. Petroglyphs in Mexico 132 99. The emperor Ahuitzotzin 134 100-102. Petroglyphs in the Bahamas 138-139 103. Petroglyph in Guadeloupe 140 104. Petroglyphs in Nicaragua 141 105. Petroglyphs in Colombia 144 106. Shallow carvings in Guiana 145 107. Sculptured rock in Venezuela 147 108. Rock near Caïcara, Venezuela 148 109. Petroglyphs of Chicagua rapids, Venezuela 149 110. Petroglyphs on the Cachoeira do Ribeirão, Brazil 151 111. The rock Itamaraca, Brazil 151 112. Petroglyphs on the Rio Negro, Brazil 152 113. Petroglyphs at Caldierão do Inferno, Brazil 152 114. Petroglyphs at the falls of Girão, Brazil 153 115. Petroglyphs at Pederneira, Brazil 153 116. Petroglyphs at Araras rapids, Brazil 154 117. Petroglyphs at Ribeirão, Brazil 154 118. Character at Madeira rapid, Brazil 155 119. Petroglyphs at Pao Grande, Brazil 155 120. Petroglyph in Ceará, Brazil 156 121-122. Petroglyphs in Morcego, Brazil 156 123. Petroglyphs in Inhamun, Brazil 157 124. Petroglyphs Pedra Lavrada, Brazil 158 125. Inscribed rock at Bajo de Canota, Argentine Republic 158 126. Petroglyphs near Araquipa, Peru 159 127. Petroglyph in Huaytara, Peru 159 128. Sculptured boulder in Chile 160 129. Petroglyph in Cajon de los Cipreses, Chile 160 130. Petroglyph on Finke river, Australia 162 131. Petroglyph in Depuch island, Australia 163 132. Petroglyph at Bantry bay, Australia 164 133. Petroglyph in New Zealand 166 134. Petroglyphs in Kei islands 168 135. Petroglyphs in Easter island 169 136. Tablet from Easter island 170 137-138. Petroglyph in Bohuslän, Sweden 174-175 139. Petroglyph in Épone, France 176 140. Petroglyphs at Tyout, Algeria 179 141. Petroglyphs at Moghar, Algeria 180 142. Petroglyph in Léribé, South Africa 182 143. Petroglyphs in Basutoland, South Africa 183 144-145. Petroglyphs in the Canary islands 183-184 145_a_. Petroglyph in Yezo, Japan 185 146. Petroglyphs at Chandeshwar, India 187 147. Types of cup sculptures 190 148. Variants of cup sculptures 191 149. Cup sculptures at Auchnabreach, Scotland 192 150. Cup sculptures at Ballymenach, Scotland 193 151. Cup sculptures in Chiriqui 194 152-153. Cup sculptures in Venezuela 195 154-155. Cup sculptures in Brazil 195-196 156. Cup sculptures in India 197 157. Comanche drawing on shoulder blade 206 158. Quill pictograph 208 159. Pictograph on gourd 208 160. Pictographs on wood, Washington 214 161. Haida basketry hat 216 162. Tshimshian blanket 217 163. Wampum strings 228 164. Penn wampum belt 230 165. Song for medicine hunting 247 166. Song for beaver hunting 249 167. Osage chart 251 168. Midē' record 252 169. Midē' records 253 170. Minabō'zho 254 171. Midē' practicing incantation 254 172. Jĕssakkī'd curing a woman 254 173. The origin of the Indians 256 174. Record of treaty 257 175-177. Shop account 259-261 178-180. Book account 262 181. Notched sticks 263 182. Device denoting the succession of time. Dakota 265 183-196. Lone-Dog’s Winter Count 273-276 197. Whooping-cough. The-Flame’s Winter Count, 1813-’14 276 198. Whooping-cough. The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1813-’14 276 199-255. Lone-Dog’s Winter Count 276-286 256. Battiste Good’s Revelation 289 257-436. Battiste Good’s Winter Count 293-328 437. Petroglyphs at Oakley Springs, Arizona 329 438. Hunting notices 331 439. Alaskan notice of hunt 332 440. Alaskan notice of departure 332 441. Alaskan notice of hunt 333 442-444. Alaskan notice of direction 333-334 445. Abnaki notice of direction 335 446. Amalecite notice of trip 336 447-448. Ojibwa notice of direction 337-338 449. Penobscot notice of direction 338 450. Passamaquoddy notice of direction 339 451. Micmac notice of direction 341 452. Lean-Wolf’s map. Hidatsa 342 453. Chart of battlefield 343 454. Topographic features 344 455. Greenland map 345 456-458. Passamaquoddy wikhegan 348-350 459. Alaskan notice of distress 351 460. Alaskan notice of departure and refuge 351 461. Alaskan notice of departure to relieve distress 351 462. Ammunition wanted. Alaskan 352 463. Assistance wanted in the hunt. Alaskan 352 464-465. Starving hunters. Alaskan 352-353 466. No thoroughfare 354 467. Rock paintings in Azuza canyon, California 354 468. Site of paintings in Azuza canyon, California 355 469. Sketches from Azuza canyon 355 470. West African message 361 471. Ojibwa love letter 363 472. Cheyenne letter 364 473. Ojibwa invitations 365 474. Ojibwa invitation sticks 366 475. Summons to Midé ceremony 367 476. Passamaquoddy wikhegan 367 477. Australian message sticks 370 478-479. West African aroko 371 480-481. Jebu complaint 375 482. Samoyed requisition 375 483. Eastern Algonquian tribal designations 379 484-487. Absaroka tribal designations 380-381 488. Arapaho tribal designation 381 489-490. Arikara tribal designations 381 491. Assiniboin tribal designation 381 492-493. Brulé tribal designations 382 494-497. Cheyenne tribal designations 382-383 498. Dakota tribal designation 383 499. Hidatsa tribal designation 384 500-501. Kaiowa tribal designations 384 502. Mandan tribal designation 385 503. Mandan and Arikara tribal designations 385 504-506. Omaha tribal designations 385 507-509. Pawnee tribal designations 386 510-512. Ponka tribal designations 386-387 513. Tamga of Kirghise tribes 387 514. Dakota gentile designations 389 515. Kwakiutl carvings 390 516. Virginia tattoo designs 393 517. Haida tattooing. Sculpin and dragon-fly 397 518. Haida tattooing. Thunder-bird 398 519. Haida tattooing. Thunder-bird and tshimos 399 520. Haida tattooing. Bear 399 521. Haida tattooing. Mountain goat 400 522. Haida tattooing. Double thunder-bird 401 523. Haida tattooing. Double raven 401 524. Haida tattooing. Dog-fish 400 525-526. Tattooed Haidas 402-403 527. Two forms of skulpin. Haida 404 528. Frog. Haida 405 529. Cod. Haida 405 530. Squid. Haida 405 531. Wolf. Haida 405 532. Australian grave and carved trees 408 533. New Zealand tattooed head and chin mark 409 534. Tattoo design on bone. New Zealand 409 535. Tattooed woman. New Zealand 410 536. Tattoo on Papuan chief 411 537. Tattooed Papuan woman 412 538. Badaga tattoo marks 413 539. Chukchi tattoo marks 414 540. Big-Road 421 541. Charging-Hawk 422 542. Feather-on-his-head 422 543. White-Tail 423 544. White-Bear 423 545. Standing-Bear 423 546. Four horn calumet 424 547. Two-Strike as partisan 424 548. Lean-Wolf as partisan 425 549. Micmac headdress in pictograph 425 550. Micmac chieftainess in pictograph 426 551. Insignia traced on rocks, Nova Scotia 427 552. Chilkat ceremonial shirt 428 553. Chilkat ceremonial cloak 429 554. Chilkat ceremonial blanket 430 555. Chilkat ceremonial coat 430 556. Bella Coola Indians 431 557. Guatemala priest 431 558. Mark of exploit. Dakota 433 559. Killed with fist. Dakota 433 560. Killed an enemy. Dakota 434 561. Cut throat and scalped. Dakota 434 562. Cut enemy’s throat. Dakota 434 563. Third to strike. Dakota 434 564. Fourth to strike. Dakota 434 565. Fifth to strike. Dakota 434 566. Many wounds. Dakota 434 567-568. Marks of exploits. Hidatsa 437 569. Successful defense. Hidatsa 438 570. Two successful defenses. Hidatsa 438 571. Captured a horse. Hidatsa 438 572. Exploit marks. Hidatsa 438 573. Record of exploits 439 574. Record of exploits 439 575. Exploit marks as worn 439 576. Scalp taken 440 577. Scalp and gun taken 440 578. Boat paddle. Arikara 442 579. African property mark 442 580. Owner’s marks. Slesvick 442 581. Signature of Running Antelope. Dakota 445 582. Solinger sword makers’ marks 445 583-613. Personal names. Objective 447-453 614-621. Personal names. Metaphoric 453-454 622-634. Personal names. Animal 455-458 635-637. Personal names. Vegetable 458 638. Loud-Talker 459 639. Mexican names 460 640-651. Symbols of the supernatural 462-466 652. Dream. Ojibwa 466 653. Religious symbols 467 654. Myth of Pokinsquss 469 655. Myth of Atosis 470 656. Myth of the Weasel girls 471 657. The giant bird Kaloo 472 658. Kiwach, the strong blower 473 659. Story of Glooscap 474 660. Ojibwa shamanistic symbols 474 661. Baho-li-kong-ya. Arizona 476 662. Mythic serpents. Innuit 476 663. Haida wind-spirit 477 664. Orca. Haida 477 665. Bear mother. Haida 478 666. Thunder-bird grasping whale 479 667. Haokah. Dakota giant 480 668. Ojibwa mánidō 480 669. Menomoni white bear mánidō 481 670. Mythic wild cats. Ojibwa 482 671. Winnebago magic animal 482 672. Mythic buffalo 482 673-674. Thunder-birds. Dakota 483 675. Wingless thunder-bird. Dakota 483 676-677. Thunder-birds. Dakota 484 678. Thunder-bird. Haida 485 679. Thunder-bird. Twana 485 680. Medicine-bird. Dakota 486 681. Five-Thunders. Dakota 486 682. Thunder-pipe. Dakota 486 683. Micmac thunder-bird 487 684. Venezuelan thunder-bird 487 685. Ojibwa thunder-birds 487 686. Moki rain-bird 488 687. Ahuitzotl 488 688. Peruvian fabulous animals 488 689. Australian mythic personages 489 690. Ojibwa Midē' wigwam 493 691. Lodge of a Midē' 493 692. Lodge of a Jĕssakkī'd 493 693-697. Making medicine. Dakota 494 698. Magic killing 495 699. Held-a-ghost-lodge 495 700-701. Muzzin-ne-neence. Ojibwa 495-496 702. Ojibwa divination. Ojibwa 497 703. Shaman exorcising demon. Alaska 497 704. Supplication for success. Alaska 499 705. Skokomish tamahous 498 706. Mdewakantawan fetich 500 707. Medicine bag, as worn 501 708. Medicine bag, hung up 502 709-711. Magic arrows 503 712. Hunter’s charm. Australia 504 713. Moki masks traced on rocks. Arizona 506 714. Shaman’s lodge. Alaska 507 715. Ah-tón-we-tuck 509 716. On-sáw-kie 510 717. Medicine lodge. Micmac 510 718. Juggler lodge. Micmac 511 719. Moki ceremonial 511 720. Peruvian ceremony 513 721-723. Tartar and Mongol drums 515-517 724. Votive offering. Alaska 519 725-726. Grave posts. Alaska 520 727. Village and burial ground. Alaska 520 728. Menomoni grave post 521 729. Incised lines on Menomoni grave post 522 730. Grave boxes and posts 523 731. Commemoration of dead. Dakota 523 732. Ossuary ceremonial. Dakota 523 733. Kalosh grave boxes 524 734. New Zealand grave effigy 525 735. New Zealand grave post 526 736. Nicobarese mortuary tablet 526 737. The policeman 529 738. Ottawa pipestem 530 739-740. Shooting fish. Micmac 531 741. Lancing fish. Micmac 531 742. Whale hunting. Innuit 531 743. Hunting in canoe. Ojibwa 532 744. Record of hunting. Ojibwa 532 745. Fruit gatherers. Hidatsa 533 746. Hunting antelope. Hidatsa 533 747. Hunting buffalo. Hidatsa 534 748. Counting coups. Dakota 534 749-750. Counting coup. Dakota 535 751-752. Scalp displayed. Dakota 535-536 753. Scalped head. Dakota 536 754. Scalp taken. Dakota 536 755-757. Antelope hunting. Dakota 536-537 758. Wife’s punishment. Dakota 537 759. Decorated horse. Dakota 537 760. Suicide. Dakota 537 761. Eagle hunting. Arikara 537 762. Eagle hunting. Ojibwa 538 763. Gathering pomme blanche 538 764. Moving tipi 538 765. Claiming sanctuary 538 766-769. Raising war party. Dakota 540 770. Walrus hunting. Alaska 541 771. Records carved on ivory. Alaska 541 772-773. Haka game. Dakota 547 774. Haida gambling sticks 548 775. Pebbles from Mas d’Azil 549 776-781. Records of expeditions. Dakota 553-554 782-783. Records of battles 556 784. Battle of 1797. Ojibwa 557 785. Battle of Hard river. Winnebago 559 786. Battle between Ojibwa and Sioux 559 787. Megaque’s last battle 560 788-795. Records of battles. Dakota 561-563 796. Record of Ojibwa migration 566 797. Origin of Brulé. Dakota 567 798. Kiyuksas 568 799-802. First coming of traders 568 803. Boy scalped 568 804. Boy scalped alive 569 805. Horses killed 569 806-808. Annuities received 569 809. Mexican blankets bought 569 810. Wagon captured 570 811. Clerk killed 570 812. Flagstaff cut down 570 813. Horses taken 570 814. Killed two Arikara 571 815. Shot and scalped an Arikara 572 816. Killed ten men and three women 572 817. Killed two chiefs 573 818. Killed one Arikara 573 819. Killed two Arikara hunters 574 820. Killed five Arikara 574 821. Peruvian biography 575 822. Hunting record. Iroquois 575 823. Martial exploits. Iroquois 576 824. Cross-Bear’s death 576 825. A dangerous trading trip 577 826. Shoshoni raid for horses 578 827. Life risked for water 578 828. Runs by the enemy 579 829. Runs around 579 830. Goes through the camp 579 831. Cut through 579 832. Killed in tipi 579 833. Killed in tipi 579 834. Took the warpath 579 835. White-Bull killed 580 836. Brave-Bear killed 580 837. Brave-man killed 580 838. Crazy Horse killed 580 839. Killed for whipping wife 580 840. Killed for whipping wife 580 841-842. Close shooting 581 843. Lean-Wolf’s exploits. Hidatsa 581 844. Record of hunt. Alaska 581 845. Charge after 585 846. Killed after 585 847. Old-Horse 585 848. Old-Mexican 585 849. Young-Rabbit 585 850. Bad-Boy 585 851. Bad-Horn 585 852. Bad-Face 586 853. Bad. Ojibwa 586 854. Got-there-first 586 855-860. Big 586-587 861. Center-Feather 587 862. Deaf Woman 587 863-867. Direction 588 868. Whooping cough 588 869. Measles 589 870. Measles or smallpox 589 871. Ate buffalo and died 589 872. Died of “whistle” 589 873-874. Smallpox 589 875. Smallpox. Mexican 589 876. Died of cramps 589 877-878. Died in childbirth 590 879. Sickness. Ojibwa 590 880. Sickness. Chinese 590 881. Fast-Horse 590 882. Fast-Elk 590 883-887. Fear 591 888-890. River freshet 591-592 891. Good-Weasel 592 892-897. High 592-593 898-903. Lean 593-594 904-915. Little 594-595 916. Lone-Woman 595 917. Lone-Bear 596 918. Many shells 596 919. Many deer 596 920. Much snow 596 921. Great, much 596 922. Ring-Cloud 597 923. Cloud-Ring 597 924. Fog 597 925. Kills-Back 597 926. Keeps-the-Battle 597 927. Keeps-the-Battle 597 928. His-Fight 597 929. River fight 598 930. Owns-the-arrows 598 931. Has-something-sharp 598 932. Prisoner. Dakota 598 933. Takes enemy 598 934. Iroquois triumph 599 935. Prisoners. Dakota 599 936. Prisoners. Iroquois 600 937. Prisoners. Mexico 600 938. Short bull 600 939-944. Sight 600-601 945. Slow bear 601 946-954. Tall 601-602 955-956. Trade 603 957. Brothers 603 958. Same tribe 603 959. Husband and wife 604 960. Same tribe 604 961. Same tribe 604 962-966. Whirlwind 604-605 967-975. Winter, cold, snow 605-606 976. Peruvian garrison 607 977. Comet. Mexican 613 978. Robbery. Mexican 613 979. Guatemalan symbols 614 980. Chibcha symbols 616 981. Syrian symbols 616 982. Piaroa color stamps 621 983. Rock painting. Tule river, California 638 984-998. Gesture signs in pictographs 639-641 999. Water symbols 642 1000. Gesture sign for drink 642 1001. Water. Egyptian 642 1002. Gesture for rain 643 1003. Water signs. Moki 643 1004. Symbols for child and man 644 1005. Gestures for birth 644 1006. Negation 645 1007. Hand 645 1008. Signal of discovery 645 1009. Pictured gestures. Maya 646 1010. Pictured gestures. Guatemala 647 1011-1019. Peace 650-651 1020-1022. War 651-652 1023. Chief-Boy 652 1024. War chief. Passamaquoddy 652 1025-1029. Council 653-654 1030-1037. Plenty of food 654-655 1038-1043. Famine 655-656 1044-1046. Starvation 656 1047-1051. Horses 656-657 1052-1060. Horse stealing 657-658 1061-1069. Kill and death 658-660 1070. Killed. Dakota 660 1071. Life and death. Ojibwa 660 1072. Dead. Iroquois 660 1073. Dead man. Arikara 660 1074-1078. Shot 661 1079. Coming rain 662 1080. Hittite emblems of known sound 663 1081. Hittite emblems of uncertain sound 664 1082. Title page of Kauder’s Micmac Catechism 668 1083. Lord’s Prayer in Micmac “hieroglyphics” 669 1084-1085. Religious story. Sicasica 672 1086. Mo-so MS. Desgodins 673 1087. Pictographs in alphabets 675 1088. Algonquian petroglyph, Hamilton farm, West Virginia 677 1089. Algonquian petroglyphs, Safe Harbor, Pennsylvania 677 1090. Algonquian petroglyphs, Cunningham’s Island, Lake Erie 679 1091. Algonquian petroglyphs, Wyoming 680 1092. Shoshonean petroglyphs, Idaho 680 1093. Shoshonean petroglyphs, Utah 681 1094. Shoshonean rock painting, Utah 681 1095-1096. Arizona petroglyphs 682-683 1097-1098. Petroglyphs in Lower California 683 1099. Haida totem post 684 1100. New Zealand house posts 685 1101. New Zealand tiki 686 1102-1103. Nicaraguan petroglyphs 686 1104. Deep carvings in Guiana 687 1105-1106. Venezuelan petroglyphs 688 1107. Brazilian petroglyphs 689 1108. Spanish and Brazilian petroglyphs 690 1109-1111. Brazilian petroglyphs 690-691 1112. Brazilian pictograph 691 1113-1114. Brazilian petroglyphs 692 1115. Tree 693 1116. Grow 693 1117. Sky 694 1118. Sun. Oakley Springs 694 1119. Sun. Gesture sign 695 1120. Devices for sun 695 1121. Sun and light 695 1122. Light 695 1123. Light and sun 696 1124. Sun. Kwakiutl 696 1125. Sun mask. Kwakiutl 696 1126. Suns 696 1127. Gesture for moon 696 1128. Moon 697 1129. Stars 697 1130. Day. Ojibwa 697 1131. Morning. Arizona 698 1132. Day 698 1133. Days. Apache 698 1134. Clear, stormy. Ojibwa 699 1135-1139. Night 699 1140. Night. Ojibwa 699 1141. Sign for night 700 1142. Night. Egyptian 700 1143. Night. Mexican 700 1144. Cloud shield 700 1145. Clouds. Moki 700 1146. Cloud. Ojibwa 700 1147. Rain. Ojibwa 701 1148. Rain. Pueblo 701 1149. Rain. Moki 701 1150. Rain. Chinese 701 1151-1153. Lightning. Moki 701-702 1154. Lightning. Pueblo 702 1155-1158. Human form 703 1159. Human form. Alaska 704 1160. Bird man. Siberia 704 1161. American. Ojibwa 704 1162. Man. Yakut 704 1163. Human forms. Moki 704 1164. Human form. Navajo 705 1165. Man and woman. Moki 705 1166. Human form. Colombia 705 1167. Human form. Peru 707 1168. Human face. Brazil 708 1169-1170. Human faces. Brazil 708 1171. Double-faced head. Brazil 708 1172. Funeral urn. Marajo 709 1173. Marajo vase 709 1174. Marajo vases 710 1175. Human heads 711 1176. Hand. Ojibwa 711 1177. Joined hands. Moki 712 1178. Cave-painting. Australia 713 1179. Irish cross 715 1180. Roman standard 715 1181-1185. Tracks 716 1186. Feet 716 1187-1192. Broken leg. Dakota 716-717 1193. Broken leg. Chinese 717 1194-1198. Voice 717-718 1199. Speech. Ojibwa 719 1200. Talk. Mexican 719 1201. Talk. Maya 719 1202. Talk. Guatemala 720 1203. Dwellings 720 1204-1210. Dwellings. Dakota 721 1211. Dwellings. Moki 721 1212. Dwelling. Maya 722 1213. House. Egyptian 722 1214. Eclipse of the sun 722 1215-1223. Meteors 722-723 1224. Meteors. Mexican 724 1225. Cross. Dakota 725 1226. Cross. Ohio mound 725 1227. Dragon fly 725 1228. Crosses. Eskimo 727 1229. Cross. Tulare valley, California 727 1230. Crosses. Owens valley, California 728 1231. Cross. Innuit 729 1232. Crosses. Moki 729 1233. Crosses. Maya 729 1234. Crosses. Nicaragua 730 1235-1236. Crosses. Guatemala 730-731 1237. Crosses. Sword-makers’ marks 732 1238. Cross. Golasecca 733 1239-1251. Composite forms 735-736 1252. Wolf-man. Haida 737 1253. Panther-man. Haida 737 1254. Moose. Kejimkoojik 739 1255. Hand. Kejimkoojik 740 1256. Engravings on bamboo. New Caledonia 743 1257. Typical character. Guiana 745 1258. Moki devices 746 1259. Frames and arrows. Moki 746 1260. Blossoms. Moki 746 1261. Moki characters 748 1262. Mantis. Kejimkoojik 749 1263. Animal forms. Sonora 749 1264-1278. Weapons and ornaments. Dakota 750-752 1279. Weapons 753 1280. Australian wommera and clubs 754 1281. Turtle. Maya 756 1282. Armadillo. Yucatan 756 1283. Dakota drawings 756 1284. Ojibwa drawings 757 1285-1287. Grave creek stone 761-762 1288. Imitated pictograph 765 1289. Fraudulent pictograph 767 1290. Chinese characters 767

PICTURE-WRITING OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

BY GARRICK MALLERY.

INTRODUCTION.

An essay entitled “Pictographs of the North American Indians: A Preliminary Paper,” appeared in the Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. The present work is not a second edition of that essay, but is a continuation and elaboration of the same subject. Of the eighty-three plates in that paper not one is here reproduced, although three are presented with amendments; thus fifty-one of the fifty-four plates in this volume are new. Many of the text figures, however, are used again, as being necessary to the symmetry of the present work, but they are now arranged and correlated so as to be much more useful than when unmethodically disposed as before, and the number of text figures now given is twelve hundred and ninety-five as against two hundred and nine, the total number in the former paper. The text itself has been rewritten and much enlarged. The publication of the “Preliminary Paper” has been of great value in the preparation of the present work, as it stimulated investigation and report on the subject to such an extent that it is now impossible to publish within reasonable limits of space all the material on hand. Indeed, after the present work had been entirely written and sent to the Public Printer, new information came to hand which ought to be published, but can not now be inserted.

It is also possible to give more attention than before to the picture-writing of the aboriginal inhabitants of America beyond the limits of the United States. While the requirements of the acts of Congress establishing the Bureau of Ethnology have been observed by directing main attention to the Indians of North America, there is sufficient notice of Central and South America to justify the present title, in which also the simpler term “picture-writing” is used instead of “pictographs.”

Picture-writing is a mode of expressing thoughts or noting facts by marks which at first were confined to the portrayal of natural or artificial objects. It is one distinctive form of thought-writing without reference to sound, gesture language being the other and probably earlier form. Whether remaining purely ideographic, or having become conventional, picture-writing is the direct and durable expression of ideas of which gesture language gives the transient expression. Originally it was not connected with the words of any language. When adopted for syllabaries or alphabets, which is the historical course of its evolution, it ceased to be the immediate and became the secondary expression of the ideas framed in oral speech. The writing common in civilization may properly be styled sound-writing, as it does not directly record thoughts, but presents them indirectly, after they have passed through the phase of sound. The trace of pictographs in alphabets and syllabaries is discussed in the present work under its proper heading so far as is necessary after the voluminous treatises on the topic, and new illustrations are presented. It is sufficient for the present to note that all the varied characters of script and print now current are derived directly or mediately from pictorial representations of objects. Bacon well said that “pictures are dumb histories,” and he might have added that in the crude pictures of antiquity were contained the germs of written words.

The importance of the study of picture-writing depends partly upon the result of its examination as a phase in the evolution of human culture. As the invention of alphabetic writing is admitted to be the great step marking the change from barbarism to civilization, the history of its earlier development must be valuable. It is inferred from internal evidence, though not specifically reported in history, that picture-writing preceded and generated the graphic systems of Egypt, Assyria, and China, but in America, especially in North America, its use is still current. It can be studied here without any requirement of inference or hypothesis, in actual existence as applied to records and communications. Furthermore, the commencement of its evolution into signs of sound is apparent in the Aztec and the Maya characters, in which transition stage it was arrested by foreign conquest. The earliest lessons of the genesis and growth of culture in this important branch of investigation may, therefore, be best learned from the western hemisphere. In this connection it should be noticed that picture-writing is found in sustained vigor on the same continent where sign language has prevailed and has continued in active operation to an extent historically unknown in other parts of the world. These modes of expression, i. e., transient and permanent thought-writing, are so correlated in their origin and development that neither can be studied to the best advantage without including the other. Unacquainted with these facts, but influenced by an assumption that America must have been populated from the eastern hemisphere, some enterprising persons have found or manufactured American inscriptions composed of characters which may be tortured into identity with some of the Eurasian alphabets or syllabaries, but which sometimes suggest letters of indigenous invention. This topic is discussed in its place.

For the purposes of the present work there is no need to decide whether sign-language, which is closely connected with picture-writing, preceded articulate speech. It is sufficient to admit the high antiquity of thought-writing in both its forms, and yet it is proper to notice a strong current of recent opinions as indicated by Prof. Sayce (_a_) in his address to the anthropologic section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, as follows:

I see no escape from the conclusions that the chief distinctions of race were established long before man acquired language. If the statement made by M. de Mortillet is true, that the absence of the mental tubercle, or bony excrescence in which the tongue is inserted, in a skull of the Neanderthal type found at La Naulette, indicates an absence of the faculty of speech, one race at least of palæolithic man would have existed in Europe before it had as yet invented an articulate language. Indeed it is difficult to believe that man has known how to speak for any very great length of time. * * * We can still trace through the thin disguise of subsequent modifications and growth the elements, both lexical and grammatical, out of which language must have arisen. * * * The beginnings of articulate language are still too transparent to allow us to refer them to a very remote era. * * * In fact the evidence that he is a drawing animal * * * mounts back to a much earlier epoch than the evidence that he is a speaking animal.

When a system of ideographic gesture signs prevailed and at the same time any form of artistic representation, however rude, existed, it would be expected that the delineations of the former would appear in the latter. It was but one more and an easy step to fasten upon bark, skins, or rocks the evanescent air pictures that still in pigments or carvings preserve their ideography or conventionalism in their original outlines. A transition stage between gestures and pictographs, in which the left hand is used as a supposed drafting surface, upon which the index draws lines, is exhibited in the Dialogue between Alaskan Indians in the First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (_a_). This device is common among deaf-mutes, without equal archeologic importance, as it may have been suggested by the art of writing, with which, even when not instructed in it, they are generally acquainted.

The execution of the drawings, of which the several forms of picture-writing are composed, often exhibits the first crude efforts of graphic art, and their study in that relation is of value.

When pictures are employed for the same purpose as writing, the conception intended to be presented is generally analyzed and only its most essential points are indicated, with the result that the characters when frequently repeated become conventional, and in their later form cease to be recognizable as objective portraitures. This exhibition of conventionalizing has its own historic import.

It is not probable that much valuable information will ever be obtained from ancient rock carvings or paintings, but they are important as indications of the grades of culture reached by their authors, and of the subjects which interested those authors, as is shown in the appropriate chapters following. Some portions of these pictures can be interpreted. With regard to others, which are not yet interpreted and perhaps never can be, it is nevertheless useful to gather together for synoptic study and comparison a large number of their forms from many parts of the world. The present collection shows the interesting psychologic fact that primitive or at least very ancient man made the same figures in widely separated regions, though it is not established that the same figures had a common significance. Indications of priscan habitat and migrations may sometimes be gained from the general style or type of the drawings and sculptures, which may be divided into groups, although the influence of the environing materials must always be considered.

The more modern specimens of picture-writing displayed on skins, bark, and pottery are far more readily interpreted than those on rocks, and have already afforded information and verification as to points of tribal history, religion, customs, and other ethnologic details.

A criticism has been made on the whole subject of picture-writing by the eminent anthropologist, Dr. Andree, who, in Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche (_a_), has described and figured a large number of examples of petroglyphs, a name given by him to rock-drawings and now generally adopted. His views are translated as follows:

But if we take a connected view of the petroglyphs to which the rock pictures, generally made with red paint, are equivalent, and make a comparison of both, it becomes evident that they are usually made for mere pastime and are the first artistic efforts of rude nations. Nevertheless, we find in them the beginnings of writing, and in some instances their transition to pictography as developed among North American Indians becomes evident.

It appears, therefore, that Dr. Andree carefully excludes the picture-writings of the North American Indians from his general censure, his conclusion being that those found in other parts of the world usually occupy a lower stage. It is possible that significance may yet be ascertained in many of the characters found in other regions, and perhaps this may be aided by the study of those in America; but no doubt should exist that the latter have purpose and meaning. The relegation to a trivial origin of such pictographs as are described and illustrated in the present work will be abandoned after a thorough knowledge of the labor and thought which frequently were necessary for their production. American pictographs are not to be regarded as mere curiosities. In some localities they represent the only intellectual remains of the ancient inhabitants. Wherever found, they bear significantly upon the evolution of the human mind.

Distrust concerning the actual significance of the ancient American petroglyphs may be dispelled by considering the practical use of similar devices by historic and living Indians for purposes as important to them as those of alphabetic writing, these serving to a surprising extent the same ends. This paper presents a large number of conclusive examples. The old devices are substantially the same as the modern, though improved and established in the course of evolution. The ideography and symbolism displayed in these devices present suggestive studies in psychology more interesting than the mere information or text contained in the pictures. It must also be observed that when Indians now make pictographs it is with intention and care--seldom for mere amusement. Even when the labor is undertaken merely to supply the trade demand for painted robes or engraved pipes or bark records, it is a serious manufacture, though sometimes only imitative and not intrinsically significant. In all other known instances in which pictures are made without such specific intent as is indicated under the several headings of this work, they are purely ornamental; but in such cases they are often elaborate and artistic, not idle scrawls.

This paper is limited in its terms to the presentation of the most important known pictographs of the American Indians, but examples from other parts of the world are added for comparison. The proper classification and correlation of the matter collected has required more labor and thought than is apparent. The scheme of the work has been to give in an arrangement of chapters and sections some examples with illustrations in connection with each heading in the classification. This plan has involved a large amount of cross reference, because in many cases a character or a group of characters could be considered with reference to a number of different characteristics, and it was necessary to choose under which one of the headings it should be presented, involving reference to that from the other divisions of the work. Sometimes the decision was determined by taste or judgment, and sometimes required by mechanical considerations.

It may be mentioned that the limitation of the size of the present volume required that the space occupied by the text should be subordinated to the large amount of illustration. It is obvious that a work on picture-writing should be composed largely of pictures, and to allow room for them many pages of the present writer’s views have been omitted. Whatever may be the disadvantage of this omission it leaves to students of the work the opportunity to form their own judgments without bias. Indeed, this writer confesses that although he has examined and studied in their crude shape, as they went to the printer, all the illustrations and descriptions now presented, he expects that after the volume shall be delivered to him in printed form with its synoptic arrangement he will be better able than now to make appropriate remarks on its subject-matter. Therefore he anticipates that careful readers will judiciously correct errors in the details of the work which may have escaped him and that they will extend and expand what is yet limited and partial. It may be proper to note that when the writer’s observation has resulted in agreement with published authorities or contributors, the statements that could have been made on his own personal knowledge have been cited, when possible, from the printed or manuscript works of others. Quotation is still more requisite when there is disagreement with the authorities.

Thanks for valuable assistance are due and rendered to correspondents and to officers of the Bureau of Ethnology and of the United States Geological Survey, whose names are generally mentioned in connection with their several contributions. Acknowledgment is also made now and throughout the work to Dr. W. J. Hoffman, who has officially assisted in its preparation during several years, by researches in the field, in which his familiarity with Indians and his artistic skill have been of great value. Similar recognition is due to Mr. De Lancey W. Gill, in charge of the art department of the Bureau of Ethnology and the U. S. Geological Survey, and to Mr. Wells M. Sawyer, his assistant, specially detailed on the duty, for their work on the illustrations presented. While mentioning the illustrations, it may be noted that the omission to furnish the scale on which some of them are produced is not from neglect, but because it was impossible to ascertain the dimensions of the originals in the few cases where no scale or measurement is stated. This omission is most frequently noticeable in the illustrations of petroglyphs which have not been procured directly by the officers of the Bureau of Ethnology. The rule in that Bureau is to copy petroglyphs on the scale of one-sixteenth actual size. Most of the other classes of pictographs are presented without substantial reduction, and in those cases the scale is of little importance.

It remains to give special notice to the reader regarding the mode adopted to designate the authors and works cited. A decision was formed that no footnotes should appear in the work. A difficulty in observing that rule arose from the fact that in the repeated citation of published works the text would be cumbered with many words and numbers to specify titles, pages and editions. The experiment was tried of printing in the text only the most abbreviated mention, generally by the author’s name alone, of the several works cited, and to present a list of them arranged in alphabetic order with cross references and catch titles. This list appears at the end of the work with further details and examples of its use. It is not a bibliography of the subject of picture-writing, nor even a list of authorities read and studied in the preparation of the work, but it is simply a special list, prepared for the convenience of readers, of the works and authors cited in the text, and gives the page and volume, when there is more than one volume in the edition, from which the quotation is taken.