Part 27

The author, with considerable naiveté, has evidently determined that the form of the cross was significant of a high state of religious culture, and that its being succeeded by effigies, which he calls idols, showed a lapse into idolatry. The fact is simply that, next to one straight line, the combination of two straight lines forming a cross is the easiest figure to draw, and its use before art could attain to the drawing of animal forms, or their representation in plastic material, is merely an evidence of crudeness or imperfection in designing. It is worthy of remark that Dr. Schliemann, in his “Troja,” page 107, presents as Fig. 38 a much more distinct cross than that given by M. Mortillet, with the simple remark that it is “a geometrical ornamentation.” An anecdote told by Dr. Robert Fletcher, U. S. Army, in connection with his exhaustive paper on Tattooing Among Civilized People, published in the Transactions of the Anthropological Society of Washington, Vol. II, page 40, is also in point. Some _savants_ were much excited over the form of the cross found in tattoo marks on an Arab boy, but on inquiry of the mother as to why the cross had been placed there, she simply answered “because it looked pretty.” The present writer will add to the literature on the subject a reference to the cross as shown upon the arm of a Cheyenne in Cloud-Shield’s winter count for the year 1790-’91, page 132, _ante_. (See also page 173.) This is explained fully by one of the common gestures for the tribal sign, Cheyenne.

“The extended index, palm upward, is drawn across the forefinger of the left hand, palm inward, several times, left hand stationary; right hand is drawn toward the body until the index is drawn clear off; then repeat. Some Cheyennes believe this to have reference to the former custom of cutting the arm as offerings to spirits, while others think that it refers to a more ancient custom, the cutting of the enemy’s fingers for necklaces.” The pictograph is simply a graphic representation of this gesture sign. See also the Moki use of the Maltese cross, page 232, the form of which in a rock-painting appears in _x_ on Plate II, page 35.

There is no doubt that among the Egyptians and several of the peoples of the eastern hemisphere, ancient and modern, the form of the cross was used symbolically, and there is no more doubt that it was employed in a similar manner by many American tribes with reference to the points of the compass, or rather the four winds. It was also used with many differing significations. See in this paper Figure 60, page 158, Figure 143, page 220, Figure 154, page 230, Figure 165, page 238, and Figure 168, page 240. The ease with which the design was made would tend to its early adoption as a sign, an emblem, or a symbol.

Rev. S. D. Hinman states that among the Dakota, symbolic crosses always have the members equal, or of the “Greek” pattern, and are always worn resting on one foot, not two as in the St. Andrew’s cross. They represent the four winds issuing from the four caverns in which the souls of men existed before embodiment. The top of the cross is the cold, all-conquering giant, the north wind. As worn on the body it is nearest the head, the seat of intelligence. The top arm, covering the heart, is the east wind, coming from the seat of life and love. The foot is the burning south wind, indicating as it is worn the seat of passion and fiery lust. The right is the gentle west wind, blowing from the spirit land, covering the lungs, from which at last the breath goes out. The center of the cross is the earth and man, sometimes indicated at that point by a circle surrounding a dot. On the upper arm an arrow is sometimes drawn, on the left a heart, on the right a star, and on the lower a sun.

SUGGESTIONS TO COLLABORATORS.

The present writer hopes to receive contributions from travelers and observers, not only in North America, but in other parts of the world. Such collaboration will always receive due credit, and when practicable will be reproduced in the language of the collaborator.

The number and the importance of the contributions received upon the collateral branch of sign-language encourages the hope of similar success in this application for assistance in the monograph on pictographs now in preparation.

The main object of the classification both of the text and of the illustrations in the present paper has been to stimulate the research and assist the collaboration invited, so that reference to the various preceding headings is unnecessary. Some practical suggestions may, however, be offered as follows:

As a small drawing of large rock inscriptions may give an exaggerated idea of the degree of finish or fineness of the subject, it is desirable, in every instance, to affix the scale of the drawing, or to give a principal dimension that may serve as a guide. A convenient scale for ordinary petroglyphs is one-sixteenth of full size. The drawing should be sufficiently close and accurate to show the character of the work. It is desirable to note the lithologic character of the rock or bowlder used; whether the drawing has been etched into the face of the rock, or pecked in more deeply with a sharp implement, and the depth of such pecking; whether the design is merely outlined, or the whole body of the figures pecked out, and whether paint has been applied to the pecked surface, or the design executed with paint only. The composition of paint should be ascertained when possible. The amount of weathering or erosion, together with the exposure, or any other feature bearing on the question of antiquity, would prove important. If actual colors are not accessible for representation the ordinary heraldic scheme of colors can be used.

That sketches even by fair artists, are of not high value in accuracy, is shown by the discrepant copies of some of the most carefully-studied pictographs, which discrepancies sometimes leave in uncertainty the points most needed for interpretation. Sketches, or still better, photographs are desirable to present a connected and general view of the characters and the surface upon which they are found. For accuracy of details “squeezes” should be obtained when practicable.

A simple method of obtaining squeezes of petroglyphs, when the lines are sufficiently deep to receive an impression, is to take ordinary manilla paper of loose texture, and to spread the sheet, after being thoroughly wetted, over the surface desired, commencing at the top. The top edge may be temporarily secured by a small streak of starch or flour paste. The paper is then pressed upon the surface of the rock by means of a soft bristle brush, so that its texture is gently forced into every depression. Torn portions of the paper may be supplied by applying small patches of wet paper until every opening is thoroughly covered. A coating of ordinary paste, as above mentioned, is now applied to the entire surface, and a new sheet of paper, similarly softened by water, is laid over this and pressed down with the brush. This process is continued until three or four thicknesses of paper have been used. Upon drying, the entire mold will usually fall off by contraction. The edge at the top, if previously pasted to the rock, should be cut. The entire sheet can then be rolled up, or if inconveniently large can be cut in sections and properly marked for future purposes. This process yields the negative. To obtain the _positive_ the inner coating of the negative may be oiled, and the former process renewed upon the cast.

Pictographs, when of bright colors and upon a light-colored surface, may readily be traced upon tracing linen, such as is employed by topographers. Should the rock be of a dark color, and the characters indistinct, a simple process is to first follow the pictographic characters in outline with colored crayons, red chalk, or dry colors mixed with water and applied with a brush, after which a piece of muslin is placed over the surface and pressed so as to receive sufficient coloring matter to indicate the general form and relative positions of the characters. After these impressions are touched up the true position may be obtained by painting the lines upon the back of the sheet of muslin, or by making a true tracing of the negative.

A mode of securing the outline once adopted was to clear out the channels of the intaglios, then, after painting them heavily, to press a sheet of muslin into the freshly-painted depressions. The objection to this method is the obvious damage inflicted on the inscription. Before such treatment, if the only one practicable, all particulars of the work to be covered by paint should be carefully recorded.

The locality should be reported with detail of State (or Territory), county, township, and distance and direction from the nearest post-office, railway station or country road. In addition the name of any contiguous stream, hill, bluff, or other remarkable natural feature should be given. The name of the owner of the land is of some secondary value, but that indication is liable to frequent changes. The site or station should be particularly described with reference to the surrounding country and to the natural circumstances and geological history of the location.

When numbers and groups of petroglyphs or rock paintings occur, their relation to each other, to the points of the compass, or to topographical features should be noted, if possible, by an accurate survey, otherwise by numeration and sketching.

The following details should be carefully noted: The direction of the face of the rock. The presence of probable trails and gaps which may have been used in shortening distances in travel. Localities of mounds and caves, if any, in the vicinity. Ancient camping grounds, indicated by fragments of pottery, flint chips, etc. Existence of aboriginal relics, particularly flints which may have been used in pecking; these may be found at the base of the rocks upon which petroglyphs occur. The presence of small mortar-holes which may have served in the preparation of colors.

With reference to pictographs on other objects than rock the material upon which they appear and the substances used in their execution should be reported, as indicated in another part of this paper.

With reference to all kinds of pictographs, it should be noted that mere descriptions without reproduction are of little value. Probable age and origin and traditions relating to them should be ascertained. Their interpretation by natives of the locality who themselves make pictographs or who belong to people who have lately made pictographs is most valuable, especially in reference to such designs as do not represent objects of nature, and which may be either conventional or connected with lines of gesture-signs.

Index

A

Abbe, Prof. Cleveland, explained eclipse to Indians 125 Abnaki devices 152, 153 [Absaroka], customs 55, 166, 230 Abstract ideas pictured 233 Achievements, Signs of individual 183-187 Adams, William A., on rock carvings 22 [African] carved knife 243 [African] property mark 182 Aigaluxamut dialect 148, 198, 199 Ainos of Gazo tattoo 78 [Alaska] Commercial Company, ivory pictographs 191-194 [Alaska] tattooing 66-73 Alaskan pictographs 59, 147-150, 152-155, 161, 191-194, 197-199, 214 Algonkian linguistic stock 19 [Algonkin] family 118 [Algonkin] petroglyph 20, 224-225, 227 [Algonkin] tribe 108 [Algonquin] characters 250 [Algonquin] legends of New England 190 Alleghany River, Pictographs on 20, 21 Allen, Dr. Harrison, on conventionalized forms 244 Alphabets 13 American Horse chart or Winter count, (_see_ Corbusier Winter counts) 95, 129-146 [American Naturalist] on tattooing 76 Amherst, Ohio, Rock carvings at 21 Analysis of the life form in art, An 244 Andree, Dr. R., criticism on pictographs 14-15 [Animal] mounds in Wisconsin 61 Anthropological Society, Washington, cited 17 Antiquities of the Southern Indians, Jones, quoted 22-23, 46 Arab symbols 222 [Arapahoes], Algonkin 108, 109 [Arapahoes], called Blue Cloud 176 [Arapahoes], formation of war party 139 Arch Spring, Pictographs at 28 Archæological frauds, Whittlesey’s, cited 250 Arickara (see Arikara) 100, 101 [Arikara] at war with Dakotas and United States 111-112 [Arikara] pictography 48, 50, 59, 186, 187, 240 [Arikara] property marks 182 [Arikara] Symbol of 60, 213-214, 231 [Arikaras], a branch of the Pawnee or Pani 105 [Arikaras], killed 209-214 Arikaree; Corrupt form of Arikara 100 Arison, William, copied petroglyph 225 [Arizona], pictographs on person 61 Rock carvings in 28-30, 222, 228, 245 Army Medical Museum, Tattooed heads in 75 Arrows in declaration of war 87, 88 Ashley, Gen. William H., attacked by Arickara 111 Assiniboine 116, 119, 124 Association pictographs 203-206 Atsina 108 Australian tattooing 76 Authors quoted by Bancroft 66 Avoidance of personal name by Indians 171 [Aztec] writing 14 Azuza Cañon pictographs 37, 156

B

Babylonian use of color 54 Bancroft, H. H., on pictography 64, 65, 66, 73, 78, 88 Barnes, Dr. G. W., California pictographs 229 Barnesville, Ohio, Bock carvings at 21 Bark, Pictographs on 59 [Bark] record of Lenni Lenape 207 Barrés totem mark 167 [Basketry] suggesting ornament 57 Beach’s Indian Miscellany, cited 188 Beale wagon road 30 Beaver Creek, Pictographs on 27 Beef first issued to Dakotas 125 Belmont County, Ohio, Rock carvings in 21 Beltrami, J. C., on Dakotas 104-105 Bendire, Capt. Charles, on petrographs 26 Benton, Cal., Petrographs at 31, 32 Berthond, Capt. E. L., on pictographs 27 Bible on war symbols 88 Big Horse Creek, Rock carvings on 22 Big Road’s roster 174-176 Biographic pictographs 208-218 Black Bear or Mato Sapa’s chart 94, 99-127 Black Hills discovered 130 Black Late Valley, Pictographs at 31 Black Rock Springs, Pictographs at 27 Blacket, W. S., cited 251 Blackfoot 102, 104, 106, 114, 121, 122, 227 [Blackfoot] defined 97 [Blackfoot], Rock carvings of 24 Bland, Dr. T. A., loaned Red Cloud census 176, 177 Blodgett, James H., on pictographs 33 Blue Cloud, a name for Arapaho 117, 118, 176 Boats ornamented 72, 78 Bo-i-de, or The Flame, Time chart of 93 Bone, Pictographs on 59 [Bone] tattooed 73-74 Book cliff, Pictographs of 27 Bourke, Capt. John G., on Moki colors 56 Bow-drill, used by Innuit 48 Brauns, Professor, on tattooing 78 Brazil, Petroglyphs in 44, 45 [Brazil], Totem marks in 167 Brinton, Dr. D. G., Research of 84, 188, 233 British Guiana, Pictographs in 40-44 Brown, Charles B., on pictographs in Guiana 40, 43, 44 Brulé 108, 109, 119, 120, 122, 127, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 141 [Brulé] defined 98, 207 [Brulé] Winter counts 129 Bureau of Ethnology, system of spelling 147 Burning Spring, W. Va., Pictographs at 22 Bush, Maj. Joseph, on time charts 94, 99-127

C

Calendar 127 [Calendar], of the Dakota Nation, A 89 Calhoun, J. C., Report cited on attack of soldiers and Dakotas on Arikaras 111, 112 California claim symbols 159 [California] grass weavers 78 [California] mnemonic device 80, 81 [California] pictographic land-marks 61 [California] petrographs 30-33 [California], Pictographs in 34, 59, 156-157, 182, 195, 198, 229, 234, 245 [California] tattooing 64 [California] war challenge 88 Calumet pipe 104 Campbell’s Creek, West Virginia, Pictographs on 22 Cañon de Chelly, Petroglyphs in 28, 37, 155 Cape Mesurado, African knife from 243 Caribbean Sea, Pictographs of 40 Carisa Plain, Pictographs of the 36 Carson Desert, Nevada, Rock-carvings in 24 Carver, Capt. J., on Indians 98, 99, 104, 113 Catlin on Indians 101, 114, 115, 116 Catlinite 23 Cattle-brands 182-183 Ceremonial chart, New Holland 197 [Ceremonial chart] pictographs 194-197 Chadron builds house 114 Challenge to war 88 Charms 201-202 Chart, Tattooed 86 Charts (_see_ Winter counts). [Charts] Of geographic features 157 Chatard, F. E., African knife 243 Chatard, T. M., African knife 243 Chelan Lake, Pictographs at 26 Cherokee pictographs 33 Cheyenne Agency, Charts at 94 [Cheyenne Agency], Fight near 102 [Cheyenne] cross 252 [Cheyenne] pictograph letter 160-161 [Cheyenne], Symbol for 123, 166, 172-173 Cheyenne war with General Mackenzie 146 Cheyennes 101, 115, 118, 132, 133, 134, 139, 141, 142, 144 Chippewa grave posts 199-200 Chippewayan tattooing 65 Cholera among Indians 142 Christy, Henry, on symbols 82 Chronology attempted by Indians, System of 127 Chumanas totem mark 167 Claim or demand pictograph 159 Clan designation 167 Clément, Basil, (interpreter) on Winter count 90, 91, 113, 113, 120, 122 Clement, Clara Erskine; Handbook of Legendary and Mythological Art 54 Cleveland, Rev. William J., cited 129 Cliff-dwellers 202 Cloud Shield, chart or Winter count (_see_ Corbusier Winter counts) 95, 129-146 Coale, Charles B., on pictographs 33 Collaborators, Suggestions to 254-256 Colorado, Rock carvings in 27 Collections of the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society, cited 158 [Color] materials 235, 236 [Colorado] maps 158 Colors, Significance of 53-57 [Colors] used by Indians 50, 51 Columbia River, Pictographs on 26 Columbiana County, Ohio, Rock carvings in 21 Commercial fraud in relics 248 Communication by pictographs 160-164 Conder, Lieutenant, on symbol at Jerusalem 222 Contributions to North American ethnology 153, 166, 195, 231 Conventionalizing 13, 15, 244 Copper-plate frauds 247 Corbusier, Dr. W. H., on pictographs 60 [Corbusier, Dr. W. H.], on rock carvings 24 [Corbusier, Dr. W. H.], on time symbols 88 [Corbusier] Winter counts, The 95, 118, 119, 121, 124, 127-146 Coronel, Hon. A. F., collection of herders’ notched sticks 81-82 [Coronel, Hon. A. F.], on pictographs 35, 36 [Coronel, Hon. A. F.], on Serrano land-marks 182 Cosninos 30 Crook, General, Designation for 146 [Cross] in pictography 252 Crow. (_See_ Absaroka.) [Crow], Distinctive mark of 231 Crow Indians mode of painting 54 Crows 103, 104, 105, 107, 114, 115, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 130, 132, 134, 135, 136, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146 Cuyahoga County, Ohio, Rock carvings in 21

D

Dahcotah, or Life and legend of the Sioux around Fort Snelling cited 184, 189, 195, 241 Dakota defined 97 [Dakota] notched sticks 81 [Dakota] pictographs 55, 60, 183 [Dakota] picture message at Fort Rice 98 [Dakota] pipe-stone quarries 17 [Dakota] time symbols 88 [Dakota] totem 167 [Dakota] treaty 1868 125 [Dakota] war with Rees 111 [Dakota] Winter counts 18, 89-127, 168 Dakotas drowned in flood of Missouri River 113 Dall, William H., on colors used in Alaska 51 Dalles of the Columbia, Petroglyphs in the 25 Dance pictographs 194-197 Das Ausland cited on marks 183 [Davenport] tablets 251 Designs on pottery 78 Dighton rock inscriptions 20, 21, 250 Diplomatic packets 161-164 [Distribution of] petroglyphs in North America 19 Domenech, L’Abbé, cited 251 Dorsey, Rev. J. Owen, on Indian customs 52, 84-86, 165, 167, 197 Dropsy among Indians 113 Dyer, Agent, Letter of 160-161

E

Eagles, how caught 105 Eastman, Mrs. Mary (“Dahkotah”) cited 184, 189, 195, 241 Eclipse, Indian idea of 125 Eells, Rev. M., on Thunder-bird 189 [Eells, Rev. M., on] Twana tattooing 49, 64 Effigy mounds, Wisconsin 61 Egyptian tattooing 78 [Egyptian] use of cross 253 [Egyptian] writing 13, 14 El Moro, Pictographs at 28 Enchanted Mountain, Georgia, Rock carvings on 23 Errors in pictography 247-253 Eskimo tattooing 64 Expedition, Record of 164 Explanation of Haida tattooing 67-72 [Explanation of] Osage mnemonic chart 84-86 [Explanation of] pictographs _passim_ 1-256 [Explanation of] San Gabriel notched sticks 81-82 [Explanation of] symbols for songs 82-84

F

Fayette County, Pennsylvania, Pictographs in 80, 224 Feather pictographs 60 Featherman cited 78 Fetiches 201 Fetterman, Capt. W. J. 144 Fielder, Interpreter, cited 117 Fletcher, Dr. E., cited 252 Flood in Missouri River recorded 137-138 [Florida] Indian war symbols 88 Fool Creek Cañon, Pictographs in 27, 229 Forsyth County, Georgia, Rock carvings in 23 Fort Berthold, Indian fight near 103 [Fort Berthold], Indian painting at 55 [Fort Berthold], Notched sticks at 81 [Fort Berthold], Pictographs at 183, 186, 187 [Fort] Buford, Indian fight near 103 [Fort] Laramie, Battle between whites and Indians near 143 [Fort] [Laramie], First goods issued to Indians at 142 [Fort] [Laramie] treaty 121, 125 [Fort] Leavenworth councils 125 [Fort] O’Kinakane 26 [Fort] Phil. Kearny, Whites massacred at 144 [Fort] Fort Pierre, Treaty at 122 [Fort] Rice, Eclipse seen at 126 [Fort] [Rice], Picture message at 98 [Fort] [Rice], Winter counts at 89, 90, 91 [Fort] Robinson, Events at 146 [Fort] Snelling, Dakotas near 202 [Fort] Union, Indian fight near 103 [Fort] Washakie, Wyoming, Rock carvings near 24 Frauds in Indian relics 247-253 French explorers observed pictographs 33

G

Gallatin cited on Indian names 98 Gaston, Oreg., Rock etchings at 25 Gatschet, A. S., on Indian customs 25, 51, 63, 183 Geneskelos, decorator of great canoe for Centennial Exposition 72 Gentile designation 167 Geographic pictographs 157 Gesture pictured 236 Gibbon, A. S., on sacred stone of Oraibi 58 Gibbs, Dr. George, on Oregon pictographs 231 [Gibbs, Dr. George], quoted on symbols of Northwest tribes 153 Gila pottery 219 [Gila] River, Pictographs on the 28 Gilbert, G. K., on pictographs 25, 30, 46, 228, 237 [Gilbert, G. K.], on sacred stone of Oraibi 58 Glue made by Indians 235 Good Battiste chart or Winter count. (_See_ Corbusier Winter counts). 88, 95, 99-146, 165, 166, 172, 219, 220, 241, 242 [Gourds], Pictographs on 60 Gozzadini, Conte Giovanni, cited 62 Grant on tattooing 66 Grapevine Springs, Pictographs at 157 Grass baskets 78 Grave Creek Mound stone 250 Grave posts 198 Great Spirit of Indians an error 191 Gros Ventre, Symbol for 166 Gros Ventres 101, 103, 107, 108, 114, 133, 134, 138 Ground, Pictographs on the 60 Guiana Indian name system 171-172 [Guiana], Pictographs in 40-44, 61 Guidance and warning pictographs 155-157 Gunnison, Lieut. J. W., on forced interpretation 251

H

Habel, Dr S., Investigations in Central South America, cited 73, 80, 194 Haida boundaries 60 Hale cited on Indian names 98 Hamilton Pictured Rock 225-220 Harney, General, cited 121, 123 Haywood, John, on pictographs 22, 33 Head in bronze, Italy 62 Hebrew tattooing 78 Heralds challenging to war 88 Herders’ notched sticks 81 Hervey group tattooing 76 [Hidatsa], Siouan 108 [Hidatsa], map 158 Hides, Pictographs on 60 [Hinman], Rev. S. D., obtained Ogalala roster 174 [Hinman], on the cross as a symbol among Dakotas 253 Historical map of Pennsylvania pictographs 226 History of Indian tribes (Schoolcraft) quoted 20, 199 Hochstetter, Dr. Ferd. von, quoted 200, 201 Hoffman, Dr. W. J., Aid of 18 [Holmes, W. H.] on pictography 60, 87, 194 Holston, Pictographs on the 33 Homomorphs and symmorphs 239 Hongi tattooing 75 Horse-hair pictographs 60, 213, 231 Horses taken by the United States from Dakotas 127 Hortsman, Nicholas, on pictographs 39 Hualpai pictograph on person 61 Humboldt, A. von, on petroglyph 38 Hunger, Petroglyphs for 152 Hunt, Pictographs of the 214 Hupâ tattooing 64

I