Part 4

Using such a solution, for 2 ounces of developer I should commence with 1-1/2 grains pyro, 1 grain bromide, and 2 grains ammonia. If the image does not gain sufficient density add more pyro and bromide, but unless very fully exposed it is difficult to avoid too much density, especially if white flowers are being photographed.

I find a plain gray or dark background most useful, and to avoid flatness it may be set at an angle and not too near the subject.

Flowers should be photographed as soon as gathered, and if possible be placed in water. I have often found a plate spoiled by movement of the leaves or flowers, even with short exposures, although the movement was not perceptible to the eye. This is more especially the case in hot weather.

DISTORTED IMAGES.

Take a portrait negative that is no longer of any use, and immerse it in a weak solution of hydrofluoric acid. The film will leave the glass. It is then washed and returned to the glass support. By stretching the film one way or the other, and allowing it to dry in this position, the most amusing prints can be made. Keep your fingers out of the acid!

PHOTOGRAPHS WITHOUT LIGHT.

A curious experiment showing that a photographic dry-plate can be otherwise affected than by light, so as to form an image upon it, is the following:

An image of copper in relief is necessary--a penny will do for this purpose. Place an unexposed dry-plate in a normal pyro developer, and on it lay the copper coin. After about five minutes or so, remove the penny, fix and wash the plate, when a perfect image of the penny will be found on it.

ELECTRIC PHOTOGRAPHS.

Similar experiments to that described above have been carried out by Prof. Fernando Sanford. He placed a coin on a dry-plate and connected it with the terminal of a small induction coil, capable of giving a spark of three or four millimeters, while a piece of tin foil upon the opposite side of the plate was connected with the other terminal of the coil.

Several negatives were made in this way, the accompanying photograph, Fig. 58, being from one of them. With one exception, they all show a fringe around them, due to the escape of the charge from the edge of the coin, which accounts for the formation of the dark ring observed around the breath figures made upon glass.

Later on he undertook to photograph in the same way objects insulated from the photographic plate, and has since made negatives of coins separated from the plate by paraffine, shellac, mica, and gutta percha. The accompanying photograph, Fig. 59, was made with the coin insulated from the photographic plate by a sheet of mica about 0.04 mm. thick. The mica was laid directly upon the film side of the plate, and the coin was placed upon it and connected to one terminal of the small induction coil already mentioned. A circular piece of tin foil of the circumference of the coin was placed upon the glass side of the plate directly opposite the coin, and was connected to the other terminal of the induction coil. The little condenser thus made was clamped between two boards, and was covered up in a dark room. Two small discharging knobs were also attached to the terminals of the induction coil, and were separated by a space of less than a millimeter, so that, when a single cell was connected with the primary coil, the spark between the knobs seemed continuous.

The plate was exposed to the action of the waves set up in this condenser for one hour, when it was taken out and the negative image developed upon it by the usual process.

MAGIC VIGNETTES.

These are reversed vignettes, that is to say, the margins round the portrait instead of being white as in the ordinary vignette are black. A method of making them was recently described by "Teinte" in _The Photogram_. This was as follows:

Two methods can be adopted. The first of these about to be detailed, though entailing, perhaps, in the first place a trifle more trouble, produces the best results. We require a black background, preferably of black velveteen, large enough for a head and shoulders. As the material is not usually obtainable of a width greater than twenty inches or so, there will have to be a seam, and this must be very neatly done. The seamed velveteen is then stretched taut on a frame, which should preferably be covered first with calico, to prevent "sagging." Always, before use, dust the velveteen with a soft brush--say, a hat brush--to remove any adhering dust or fluff. Instead of velveteen, a good paper background can be used, only it must be seen that the surface is smooth and free from cracks or creases, and is _dead black_.

We require also a vignetting mask suitable to the subject, with a serrated edge. This has to be fixed inside the camera between the lens and plate.[4] The proper position can be found by trial; the further the card is away from the plate the softer and more gradual the vignetting. No special arrangement for holding this is required beyond what can be prepared by any one who can use his fingers. We take a piece of stout card, the outside of which will just fit into the folds of the camera's bellows, and by a little twisting it can be sprung in between the folds which will hold it. There is an opening in the center, square in shape, about quarter plate size. This acts as a frame to hold the vignetting mask, which has the opening of proper size and shape. By using a frame as described the vignetter can be moved about up and down and from side to side, and when the correct position is found fixed by drawing pins. The frame and vignetter should be blacked all over. For this purpose take some lampblack ground in turps, and mix with it a little gold size sufficient (found by trial) to prevent the lampblack from rubbing off when dry, but not enough to cause the paint to dry shiny.

[4] A vignetter for the purpose, as shown in Fig. 60, has been placed on the market.

A good distance to fix the vignetter is about one-third the extension of the camera when the object is in focus, measuring from the lens.

We adjust the camera so that the image of the figure falls in the correct position on the screen, and the vignette is made of such a size and shape as to give the amount required.

The shadow of the mask protects the edges of the plate surrounding the image, and in development we obtain a negative in which the image is vignetted into clear glass, and on printing from such the margins print dark. The printing of such a negative should be prolonged until the margins of the picture are quite lost, or they are apt to show after toning.

The sketch shows the arrangement of vignetter inside camera.

The other plan consists in making an ordinary negative, using preferably a dark background. From this is made a vignette in the ordinary manner. When this comes from the frame it is placed on a piece of clean glass--face up--and another piece of glass free from flaws placed over it. Now cut a piece of card to the size and shape of the vignetted portion of the print, and fix this with glue to a piece of cork. This piece of cork must vary in thickness with various pictures. Now place the cork on the glass so that the mask covers the picture and fix with glue to prevent slipping. Place the whole out in diffused light, and allow the darkening of the margins to go on until sufficiently deep. The print is then toned.

The height of the card from the print must be such that no abrupt line is produced between the first printing and the darkened margin, but that one will shade into the other without break.

A SIMPLE METHOD OF ENLARGING.

If we have an ordinary gelatine negative, say, of half-plate size, and require to enlarge it to a whole plate, the simplest plan is to thoroughly wash it and immerse in a solution composed of citric acid, 2 ounces; hydrofluoric acid, 1 ounce; acetic acid (glacial), 1 ounce; glycerine, 1/2 ounce; water, 20 ounces. The action of the hydrofluoric acid will be to detach the film from the glass, while the other acids will cause the film to spread out considerably; the action being even all over, the image is completely enlarged. It is then carefully removed and washed in plenty of clean water, after which it can be transferred to a larger piece of glass. The action is sometimes to weaken the negative in density; it is therefore occasionally necessary to intensify it.

MOONLIGHT EFFECTS.

Curious as it sounds, very good moonlight effects can be procured on a bright sunshiny day. A photograph is made of a landscape in dazzling sunlight, a small stop and rapid exposure being given. The plate should, if possible, be backed with any of the substances recommended to prevent halation. Choose a landscape, with the reflection of the sun's rays in water, and include this and the sun itself on the plate. It is best to wait, however, until the sun just disappears behind a cloud. Shade the lens so that the rays do not shine on it direct, and expose rapidly. Use an old or weak developer. The sun and its reflection will, of course, make their appearance first. Continue the development until the detail in the under-exposed parts is just visible, and fix. Print very darkly, and slightly over tone. If printing is done upon green developing paper, and a little re-touching with Chinese white, the effect is very good.

PHOTOGRAPHING SNOW AND ICE CRYSTALS.

There are few photographers who appear to be aware of the many beautiful phenomena of nature that can be studied by the aid of photography. Under the title of "Schnee Crystalle," Dr. G. Hellmann has published[5] a book on this subject profusely illustrated with engravings and photo-micrographic collotypes from direct photographs by Dr. R. Neuhaus.

[5] Rudolph Muckenberger, Berlin.

Dr. Neuhaus describes his method of photographing snowflakes in Dr. Eder's Jarbuch, from which article we extract the most important and interesting paragraphs: Were we to attempt to photograph snow crystals in a perfectly cold room, the temperature is still higher than that out of doors; moisture at once precipitates upon the carrier of the object; the crystals would melt and evaporate after a short time. The work must be done in the open, and perfect success can be expected only when the temperature is near zero.

Snow crystals evaporate rapidly even in low temperature, and the work requires to be done rapidly and with caution. Freshly fallen snow only will give a good photograph, and as we are compelled to work in the midst of the snow storm, the task becomes still more complicated and difficult. Snow crystals but a short time after falling break, the broken pieces freeze together and crystallization is destroyed. For the illumination of snow crystals, transmitted light only can be used; reflected light destroys the shadows, and injures the high lights, and the result is necessarily but a very imperfect picture of the object.

Diffused light, especially that of a dark winter's day, and during a snow storm, is not fit for this kind of photo-micrographic work, and we must resort to artificial light, preferably to that of a petroleum lamp. To prevent heat action emanating from the illuminating ray cone, an absorptive cell of alum solution should be interposed. As alum solution freezes at about 20° Fahr., chloride of sodium is added. With Hartnark's projection system, at 31 mm. focus distance, from 5 to 7 seconds upon an erythrosine plate is ample.

Dr. Neuhaus has made photographs of more than 60 different ice and snow specimens. The pictures of ice crystals much resemble those of hoar frost, deposited after a cold winter's night. Of snow crystals, the doublets are highly interesting, two crystals merged into one, and those having passed through a moist stratum of air, when microscopic drops of water will freeze into the hexagonal form, giving the picture an appearance very much resembling cauliflower.

The most difficult question of all remains, the cause of the various forms of the hexagonal crystals, which frequently change in the same snowfall. Instead of advancing a new hypothesis, says Hellmann, it is better to acknowledge that we know nothing positively in regard to this. In our knowledge of the form and structure of the snow we have made great advance since the time of Kepler, but after nearly four hundred years, we cannot give a satisfactory answer to his question, "_Cur autem sexangula? Why six-sided?_"

We do not know the special conditions which determine the formation of one or the other form of snow crystals. We have found that a low temperature favors the formation of tabular crystals; a higher temperature the star shaped crystals; these groups show such multifarious forms that it is necessary to seek for other causes which influence the formation of snow figures. There is offered here a broad field for new investigation and study.

We give a reproduction (Fig. 64) of a photograph of a curious group of crystals. Some water had been left in a 10×8 dish on a winter day, and a film of ice was seen floating on the surface. The formation of the crystals and the floral design were so beautiful that it was taken out and photographed. The delicate lace-like edging of the glacial tracery is the result of the deposition of hoar frost while draining off the water from the ice leaves and flowers and fixing the image in the camera.

Quite recently Mr. Jas. Leadbeater has favored us with some account of his beautiful work in this fascinating branch of photography, some samples of which are here given. He first makes his windows perfectly clear and waits for a keen frost. The camera is inside the room and a dark cloth-covered board is placed on the outside, leaning against a low balcony of wood. The exposure varies with the thickness of the crystals, from two to ten seconds, principally with a very small stop. Two reproductions of his pictures will be found on pp. 76-77.

PHOTOGRAPHING INK CRYSTALS.

The study of crystallization is undoubtedly an interesting and fascinating one, and photography may be made to play an important part in securing permanent records of these curious formations. If a drop of water containing a salt be allowed to drop upon a glass plate, it will, upon evaporation, deposite crystals of various kinds. In a recent article in _La Nature_, by Dr. E. Trouessart, a description is given of the beautiful crystallic forms deposited by a drop of ink on evaporation. The article is translated in the _Literary Digest_, from which we make extracts:

"Take a sheet of glass, deposit on it a drop of ink and spread the drop a little, uniformly; let it dry for a few minutes; then examine with a microscope, magnifying from 50 to 200 diameters, and you will be able to see the flowers of ink in process of formation under your eyes; that is to say, regular white crystal particles which detach themselves from the black or violet medium, and arrange themselves so as to form regular figures.

"If you are pressed for time, this beautiful result will easily be obtained by passing the sheet of glass over a spirit lamp or a candle to evaporate the moisture. The crystals will then be smaller and more numerous, presenting the appearance of a dark firmament densely sprinkled with bright silvery stars. But if you have patience to wait for evaporation without heat, you will obtain larger crystals of more varied forms, arranging themselves as crosses, flowers, etc.

"These crystals may be varied indefinitely by modifying the compositions of evaporation, adding more ink, etc. But it is quite possible that different inks will give different results. The inks I use, like all the other inks in use, have a basis of sulphate of iron and gallic acid.

"By allowing the evaporation to proceed slowly, it is quite easy to watch the formation of the crystals. The geometrical figures are more or less perfect cubes, pyramids, lozenges, crosses, needles, etc., the pyramids being formed by cubes superposed one on the other, as in the pyramids of Egypt. The _flowers_ in our illustration are formed by the union of crystals, each of which represents the petals or sepals of a flower. The Maltese cross--the crucifer or four-leafed flower--is the normal regular form, but multiples of four frequently occur, by the formation of new crystals in the intervals; and also by the accidents of crystallization, we get flowers of three and five petals, resembling _Rubiaceae_, lilies, orchids, violets, etc."

PINHOLE PHOTOGRAPHY.

Although a lens is the most important part of the photographer's apparatus, it is not absolutely necessary for the production of photographs. Very good pictures can be made by means of a pinhole. Remove the lens from the camera, and insert in its place a sheet of thin, hard cardboard. In the centre make a tiny hole with a fine-pointed needle made red-hot. Another method is to make a large hole in the cardboard, and paste over it a piece of tinfoil and make the pinhole in this. The essential point is that the hole be perfectly round without any burring at the edges. The most perfect arrangement can be obtained by getting a watchmaker to drill a fine hole through a piece of sheet metal. The diameter of the hole should not be greater than one-fiftieth of an inch. Whatever is used, cardboard or metal, it should be blackened all over to prevent the reflection of light in the camera. The focusing glass should be brought within about 6 inches of the hole. Owing to the small amount of light admitted, focusing is very difficult. It can be done by pointing the camera towards the sun and focusing its image. For the same reason the exposure is very long, ranging from ten minutes to half an hour; it is, in fact, difficult to overexpose.

It is usually stated that no focusing is required, the larger the plate the wider the angle, but according to Prof. Pickering, 12 inches is the maximum distance for sharp work.

Peculiar diffused effects can be obtained by using a fine slit in place of the pinhole. The picture shown on page 82 is an example.

FREAK PICTURES BY SUCCESSIVE EXPOSURES.

We have already described the various remarkable photographic pictures which may be taken by successive exposures with the same individual in different positions against a perfectly black and non-actinic background. This, however, is not easily obtained, and a French photographer, M. Bracq, has invented an ingenious attachment to a camera by which the same effects may be obtained with any background and under the ordinary conditions of amateur photography. The following description is from _La Nature_ translated in the _Popular Science News_.

The apparatus, Fig. 70, is attached to the back of the camera, and consists of a frame suitable for holding the usual ground glass, or plate holder. Directly in front of the plate holder is placed an opaque screen perforated with a horizontal slit the width of the photographic plate used. By means of a screw and a crank the screen with its opening may be made to move up and down before the plate, thus allowing all parts of it to be successively exposed. A pointer connected with the screen shows the position of the slit at any time when it is covered by the plate holder.

The operation of the apparatus is evident from the above description. To take the picture illustrated in Fig. 71, for instance, the table with the boy upon it is placed in the proper position and supported by planks, another table, or in any convenient way. After properly focusing it on the ground glass, the screen is screwed down till the opening is at the bottom of the camera, and the plate holder being placed in position, the slide is drawn and the handle turned till the indicator shows that the opening has reached a point corresponding to the image of the bottom of the table on the plate. The slide is then replaced in the plate holder, the table and its support removed, and the boy placed in the second position, and the exposure continued by screwing up the screen until the entire plate has been impressed with the double image, which, upon development, appears as shown in the illustration.

The perforated screen may also be made to move horizontally as well as vertically across the plate, and by a combination of the two directions the same individual may be taken four or more times in different positions in the same photograph. Many amusing and astonishing effects may be obtained by the simple means which will readily suggest themselves to any practical photographer.

WIDE-ANGLE STUDIES.

By the use, or rather the abuse, of a lens having a very wide angle, say, 100 degrees, some very amusing effects can be obtained by apparent exaggeration of perspective. We say apparent advisedly, for if a view made with one of these lenses, say of 5 inches focus, be viewed by the observer at a distance of 5 inches from the eye, the perspective will appear correct; but, of course, this is never done under ordinary circumstances. Every person, unless extremely short-sighted, will hold a photograph at a distance from the eye of about 12 or 14 inches.

The effect of using a wide-angle lens under ordinary conditions is to make objects in the foreground appear ridiculously large, while those in the background have a diminished appearance. Fig. 72 is an example of this; it is hardly necessary to observe that the gentleman's pedal extremities were not so gigantic as represented in the photograph. Fig. 73 is another and scarcely less painful example of this exaggeration.

In the _Practical Photographer_, some time ago, it was humorously suggested that sportsmen could, by means of the camera, bring home apparently indisputable evidence as to their skill or prowess. Thus, for instance, you and your friend Jones have been out fishing together, and realized the truth of the old saying about anglers--_i.e._, "a worm at one end of a rod and a fool at the other." You have, however, managed to catch a fish (any sort will do) about the dimensions of a good-sized sprat. It is the usual custom of anglers, I believe, to view their captures through magnifying-glasses before discoursing upon them. A better plan, however, is to photograph your fish, and then there can be no dispute whatever, because it is the popular belief that photography cannot lie. However, all that is necessary is to hang the fish in front of the camera to the bough of a tree, we will say, with a piece of black thread. You then retire several paces behind it, holding up your arm as if you were holding up the fish. Your friend will then adjust the camera so that the fish just comes under your hand, focuses, places a very small stop on, so as to get everything sharply defined, and makes the necessary exposure. Thus it is possible, with a little trouble, to obtain everlasting records of your marvelous day's sport, for you can easily make yourself appear to be holding a fish of gigantic proportions--say, 5 ft. long, or so. Fig. 74, 75.