Part 9
To get at the peat, they first dig up the surface of the ground till they come to the clob, throwing the earth into the empty pits, from which they have already cut out the peat: they then dig up the clob, and either sell it to the poor for firing, or lay it in heaps, to burn to ashes, to be sold to the farmers. Then they cut out the true peat, with a peculiar kind of spade, in long pieces, vulgarly called long squares, about three inches and a half broad every way, and four feet long, if the thickness of the peat will allow that length: and as they cut it out in long pieces, they lay them in a regular order carefully, in rows upon the ground, to be dried by the sun and wind. If the peat be thick, when they have cut one length of the spade for some distance, they return again, and cut down another length of it (or four feet), and so on, till they reach the gravelly bottom, if they can sufficiently drain it of the water, which continually comes in, tho’ proper persons are employed to pump out as much of the water as they can all the time. As the peat dries, and is turned by persons appointed for that purpose, to dry it the better, it breaks into smaller lengths, and then it serves not only the poor; but many other persons, for firing, and gives a good heat. It is sold for about ten shillings a waggon-load, delivered at their houses in the town. The ashes also prove very good manure for both grass and arable land; and the farmers give from four pence to six pence a bushel for them, which renders this firing very cheap.
Great numbers of trees are plainly visible in the true peat, lying irregularly one upon another; and sometimes even cart-loads of them have been taken out, and dried for firing: but the nearer these trees lie to the surface of the ground, the less sound is the wood: and sometimes the small twigs, which lie at the bottom, are so firm, as not to be easily cut thro’ with the usual peat-spade. These trees are generally oaks, alders, willows, and firs, besides some others not easily to be known. The small roots are generally perished; but yet have sufficient signs to shew, that the trees were torn up by the roots, and were not cut down, there being no sign of the ax or saw; which, had they been felled, would have been plainly visible.
No acorns are found in the peat, tho’ many cones of the fir-tree are, and also a great number of nut-shells. They are all of a darkish colour; and the nuts are hollow within, and some of them have a hole at the broad end.
A great many horns, heads, and bones of several kinds of deer, the horns of the antelope, the heads and tusks of boars, the heads of beavers, _&c._ are also found in it: and I have been told, that some human bones have been found; but I never saw any of these myself, tho’ I have of all the others.
But I am assured, that all these things are generally found at the bottom of the peat, or very near it. And indeed, it is always very proper to be well and faithfully informed of the exact depth and place, where any thing of these kinds is found; whether it is in the earth above the peat, or in the clob; or in the true peat, or at the bottom of it; which will greatly assist us in forming a just judgment of the real antiquity of the things that are found, or at least of the time they have lain there. Besides this, as they formerly used to cut out the peat in large plots here and there, leaving spaces full of peat between those pits (whereas now they draw off the greatest part of the water by pumps, and so clear out all the peat regularly as they go on); so it must be carefully observed, whether whatsoever is found here be dug out of these old peat-pits, or not; for axes, and other things, may have been formerly dropt into these pits, before they were filled up again with earth, and may now be dug out of them again. My father has now in his possession an iron hatchet, not greatly differing from the modern form, which was found lying flat at the very bottom of the peat: it was covered with a rust near half an inch thick, and the handle was to it, which seemed to be of beech-wood, but was so soft, that it broke in bringing it up: but as the person is dead, who found it, I can’t say whether it lay in an old peat-pit, or no.
Mr. Osgood found, some years ago, an urn, of a light brown colour, and large enough to hold above a gallon, in the true peat about eight or ten feet from the river, near a mile and a half west of this town, in Speen-moor. It lay about four feet below the level of the ground, and about one foot within the peat; and over it was raised an artificial hill, about eight feet higher than the neighbouring ground; and as the whole hill consisted of both peat and meadow-ground intermixed together, it plainly appeared, that the peat was older than the urn; and that the persons, who raised the hill, must first have dug a large hole in the peat, to bury the urn there, and so formed the hill of the peat and meadow-ground mixed together. Round the hill, where the urn lay, they had made also many half-circular ridges, with trenches between them, one beyond another, in this manner:
Where _a_ is the river, and _c_ the hill; and the half circles shew some of the ridges, the number of which Mr. Osgood has now forgot. The urn was broke by the peat-spade, and it came up only in small pieces, so that nothing was found in it; and no body happened to be there at that time but the peat-cutters.
No coins of any sort have been found in the peat. But there may, perhaps, be a variety of things at the bottom of it: but as the peat is always full of water, which is never quite drained off, so it is not an easy matter to examine the bottom.
I beg leave to assure you, my Lord, that I am, with great respect and esteem,
Your Lordship’s most obliged, and obedient humble Servant, John Collet.
XVI. _An Account of the Alterations making in the_ Pantheon _at_ Rome: _In an Extract of a Letter from_ Rome _to_ Thomas Hollis, _Esq; Communicated by_ John Ward, _LL.D. R.S. Vice-Præs._
[Read Mar. 3, 1757.]
A Project was lately laid before the government by Paolo Posi, an architect, for modernizing the inside of the Pantheon, and unfortunately approved. In consequence of which, the dome has been already cleaned, and rough cast; and the remainder of the lead taken away, which served as a lining to the silver work, that originally covered it. The vestiges of the cornices, and other ornaments of the silver work, were still discernible in the lead, which was fastened by very large iron nails. All this was effected by a moveable scaffold, that was fixed to the bronze cornice of the open circle above, whereby the temple is illuminated, and descended to the cornice of the Attic order, being as curious in the contrivance, as detestable for the purposes intended by it. It is true, we could not before see the dome in its pristine glory; but we had the satisfaction of viewing the traces and remains of what it had been. Nor could the adepts in architecture sufficiently admire the skill and sagacity of the builder, who, composing it of a number of small arches, which together formed a kind of net-work, and filling up the intervals between with pumice-stones and mortar, gave it that strength and lightness, whereby it has probably stood so many ages.
The evil would be comparatively small, had the project extended no farther, than what has been related; but they are now busy in removing the Attic order, to make room for a new invention, suitable to the trifling taste, which at this day prevails. And not content with that, they think of taking away the ancient pavement; and, what is still worse, its peculiar beauty, the open circle at the top, to place a lanthorn instead of it, as is usual in modern cupola’s.
You had the good fortune, Sir, to view this remarkable temple, in that state, wherein it was left by the ancient barbarians: but those, who see it hereafter, will find it in a much more deplorable condition, stripped of its precious marbles and ornaments; and so disguised by modern alterations, that the noble form given it by Agrippa will be no longer distinguishable.
It is said Il Signor J.B. Piranesi, the architect, who published the antiquities of Rome, and divers ingenious works of that kind, has taken accurate plans of the Attic order, and every other particular relating to it. These he proposes to engrave and publish, with exact explanations annexed to them; together with a plan of the whole, as he believes it appeared in its original splendor and perfection; that posterity may not be deprived of informations, which are of so great benefit and importance to all lovers of architecture. It is also said, that the engineer [carpenter], who invented the scaffolding, has made an exact model of it for him; which he intends to publish as a part of the work before-mentioned.
XVII. _An Account of a new medicinal Well, lately discovered near_ Moffat, _in_ Annandale, _in the County of_ Dumfries. _By Mr._ John Walker, _of_ Borgue-House, _near_ Kirkudbright, _in_ Scotland.
[Read Feb. 10, & Mar. 3, 1757.]
THIS mineral spring was found out by one Mr Williamson, a few years ago, when he was overseeing a mine, which was at that time carrying on in its neighbourhood. It is situate about four miles distant from Moffat, in the bottom of a deep scar, which is on the west side of a large mountain called Hartfell, from which it has acquired the name of Hartfell-spaw. This scar is a part of the mountain, thro’ which a small stream of water has worn its way to a considerable depth; by which it has laid open, and exposed to view, the strata of the earth on each side: and in the bottom of this scar, and near to the brink of this small brook, the mineral water springs up.
When I saw it, it consisted of two springs, which were very well ordered by Mr. Williamson, so as to run from two wooden spouts, immediately at their rise out of the earth; which indeed must be of very great advantage to all mineral waters; and I am persuaded there are many, whose medical qualities are greatly impaired by falling into reservoirs, and continuing in them for some time after they spring from the earth. The one of these springs was situate about ten or twelve yards farther up the brook than the other; and they were then distinguished by the names of the upper and lower spring: but I have been since informed, that their situation is now altered. Each of these springs did at that time run nearly the same quantity of water, which, as I thought, was above an English quart in a minute, and that during a season of very dry weather.
As there are many instances of mineral waters springing out of the earth very near each other, which at the same time are impregnated with very different principles; it therefore seemed not at all improbable, that as these waters did appear to run, for some part of their course, in different channels, they might in some respects be different from each other. And this suspicion I found not to be altogether groundless with regard to these springs, as will be shewn afterwards. For which reason it may be observed, that the following trials were all made upon the water of the upper fountain, except where the other is particularly mentioned; and also that they were made within 24 hours after the water was taken from the spring, being carried to Moffat in bottles carefully sealed.
According to what may be inferred from the following experiments, it may be premised, that this water appears to contain in it a large proportion of iron, but in two different forms; and an aluminous salt, which is conjoined with a terrestrial principle.
As the contents of several mineral waters have been the cause of many different opinions, and of great disputes among physicians and chymists; as the inquiry I made into the principles of these waters, which I am now considering, was not performed with that nicety and exactness I could have wished; and as I am persuaded, that to dogmatize in any branch of philosophy can never tend to its advancement; I shall not therefore pretend to determine with certainty in any part of this subject, where the contrary opinion can be admitted with the least degree of probability. These trials are indeed but few and imperfect, and are no-way sufficient to form an exact account of this mineral water; yet I believe they may afford some conclusions, which may be serviceable in compiling a more compleat history of it. They render it pretty evident, that the above-mentioned principles are contained in these waters: and tho’ I will not pretend absolutely to exclude all others, yet I must say, that, by what inquiry I made, I could not observe them to be in the least impregnated with any other kind of mineral substance.
After a good deal of observation upon the water of this Spaw; and after many fruitless attempts, which I have at different times made upon several other waters of the chalybeat kind in Scotland, in quest of the volatile spirit, which has been commonly attributed to them; I must own, that I have been induced to think, that there is no such thing exists in these waters at all. What has been generally called the spirit of steel waters, seems to me to be very unintelligible; altho’ the existence of it in these waters has been asserted by all the writers on this subject, which I have yet had occasion to see. The spirit of a mixed body is commonly taken to be a subtile, penetrating, light, and volatile substance, more susceptible of motion than any other of its parts, and most easily separable from them by avolation. But that any chalybeat water contains such a substance, I think has never been made evident, unless where the water has been found to be impregnated with some other mineral principles. Some steel waters, I believe, contain a large proportion of air, whose elasticity may occasion it to break forth with an explosive force; some others there are, which contain a volatile and sulphureous halitus; and to one or other of these two causes, or to some other mineral principle, I think most of the phænomena may be referred, which have been attributed to a ferrugineous or vitriolic volatile spirit.
As the first thing observable in a mineral water is its outward form, we must therefore take notice, that the water of this Spaw equals the clearest spring-water in transparency; and is likewise as free of any colour or odour: yet its taste is very strong, and may be discerned to be compounded of a sweet, subacid, and astringent taste. Its sweetness and acidity appear sensibly to arise from alum; and its high styptic and astringent taste does as evidently proceed from that mineral salt, joined with some earthy or ferrugineous parts. I must likewise observe, that when I first compared the taste of these two springs, I could plainly discern, that the water of the lower spring was more acid, and less astringent, than that of the upper one; and, on the contrary, the water of the upper spring seemed more astringent, and less acid. This induced me to think, that the mineral parts, which caused the acid and astringent tastes, were mixed in the waters of these two springs in different proportions. And what I observed of them afterwards still confirmed this conjecture.
But, in order to give some evidence for the existence of the above-mentioned minerals in the waters of these springs, we shall consider them separately, by relating the experiments, which seemed to indicate, that they are contained in these waters in a very considerable proportion, and by offering some conclusions, which may be reasonably drawn from them.
And as the first trials were made in quest of iron, it may perhaps be most proper to consider it in the first place.
_Experiment_ 1. Some pieces of galls being added to equal quantities of the water of the two springs, an exceeding deep and bright blue colour was immediately produced in the water of the upper spring, which in a little time turned to a perfect black. The water of the lower spring, tho’ indeed it was turned of the same colour, yet was not of so deep a shade, but was somewhat lighter than the former. The tincture of galls caused the same appearances.
2. A tincture of balaustine-flowers produced the above blue colours in both waters.
3. A quantity of the water being thoroughly tinged with galls, was allowed to stand 24 hours: being then filtrated thro’ brown paper, the water, tho’ almost quite colourless, would not again receive any tincture with galls.
4. After elixation the water became of a turbid yellow colour with ochre, and afforded very little tincture with galls.
5. A solution of sal Martis, chemically prepared, being mixed with galls, immediately turned of a bright dark blue colour, exactly similar to that produced in the water.
6. A solution of common and rock alum was no-ways changed in its colour with galls.
7. A solution of sal Martis and alum being mixed in equal quantities, the mixture was turned of a bright blue colour with galls; yet not of so deep a hue, but of a more diluted colour than the solution of sal Martis, without alum.
From these experiments we must first of all observe, that the colour, which these waters afford with galls and pomegranate-flowers, is very uncommon. The more iron, that any mineral water contains, it will afford the deeper colour with such astringents: but tho’ I have tried this experiment upon a great many of the ferrugineous waters in Scotland, and also upon the waters of some of the foreign Spaws, I never observed one, that afforded so deep a colour as this, which we now consider. Some of the weakest of them gives only a red or faint purple tincture, and the strongest only a deep purple: but I never saw or heard of any chalybeat water, but this, either in Scotland or elsewhere, that afforded an intense black and inky colour with galls. From which, I think we may venture to conclude, that the water of this Spaw contains a far larger proportion of iron than most, or perhaps than any, other chalybeat water hitherto discovered: and for this reason, I dare say, it will likewise be so much the more preferable to most others in medicinal virtues; which has indeed already appeared by many surprising cures it has performed, and which, I am persuaded, will more fully appear, when its medicinal effects shall be better known.
There must needs be a very great quantity of iron in this water, when it yields as deep a colour with galls as a strong solution of sal Martis. I was indeed at first apprehensive, that this perhaps might not be owing so much to a large and uncommon proportion of chalybeat parts, as to the commixture of alum, which I judged to be in the water. But we see the contrary appears by these trials: for alum of itself affords no tincture with astringents, and, instead of rendering a solution of sal Martis with galls of a more intense colour, rather makes it lighter and more diluted.
We see here, that the ferrugineous matter is intirely separated from the water by an infusion of galls. The like also happens by elixation; after which it is almost deprived of its tinging quality. Yet other chalybeat waters lose this quality by much less degree of heat.
As there is an ochrous earth separated from all steel waters, when exposed to the air, which subsides to the bottom, and a metalline scum or cremor, which swim on their surface; we shall next consider the appearances, which they make in this water.
_Exp._ 8. A solution of saccharum Saturni being dropt into common spring-water, left the upper parts of the water clear and colourless, but formed a lactescency towards the bottom. The same solution being added to the mineral water, soon turned it of a turbid yellow colour, which afterwards subsided, and formed a deep yellow cloud in the bottom of the glass; and below this yellow sediment there adhered to the bottom of the glass a whitish substance, which I took to be the metalline parts of the saccharum Saturni separated from the purer parts of the salt, which were still suspended in the water, and which made it of a muddy whitish colour.
9. Forty drops of oleum tartari per deliquium being added to an ounce of the water, made it of an uniform light yellow colour; but in an hour afterwards there were many small yellow terrene _nubeculæ_ formed in it. These the next day were more conspicuous, being thoroughly separated from the water, and precipitated to the bottom, leaving the water quite clear, as it was before the mixture. A small quantity of this limpid water being taken, it would afford no tincture with galls. It was then all poured off, except so much in the bottom of the glass as contained the above-mentioned clouds: to this there were some galls added, which in half an hour turned these clouds from a light yellow to a deep red colour, but did not change the colour of the water, in which they swam.
10. Immediately after the affusion of ol. tart. p.d. to the water, galls were added to the mixture, which tinged it of a deep and bright red colour. After standing for some time, there were red clouds precipitated to the bottom, and the water continued of a dusky opake red colour.
11. There is a small brook, formerly mentioned, which runs near by these springs; into which the water, that flows from them, is discharged. I observed the stones and channel of this brook all tinged with ochre of a deep yellow colour, so far up as the water of these springs flowed into it; but the channel, which the mineral water ran over before it was mixed with the water of the brook, was very little or nothing discoloured with ochre. As I conjectured what this was owing to, I afterwards took two equal quantities of the mineral water, into one of which I put an equal quantity of common water. In two hours the mixture became less transparent, and appeared yellowish, while the simple mineral water retained its clearness. Next day there was much ochre separated from the mixture, which subsided to the bottom of the glass: but the unmixed mineral water remained still clear and colourless, as at first.
All chalybeat waters separate their ochrous parts, when exposed some time to the air; but this separation is made sooner by the commixture of several kinds of salts. Thus we see the ochre in this water is immediately separated and precipitated by the solution of saccharum Saturni.