Part 24

Let me then take a particular territory like William O'Kelly's kingdom of Ui Maine. In the fifth century, the lordship of this territory, carrying the title of king, was granted by a king of Connacht to his kinsman Maine. His descendants, called Ui Maine, were the principal nobility of the territory in later times. Before Maine, the territory belonged to a Pictish folk, the Sogini or Soghain, also found in other parts of the country. This Pictish folk continued to inhabit the territory under the rule of the sept of Maine, and under the subordinate rule of their own nobles. But even before Maine's time, the population did not consist of a homogeneous tribe of Sogini, for we find record of another folk dwelling there, distinguished from the Picts and classed among the Fir Iboth, _i.e._ the Ebudeans or Hebrideans; and their descendants also remained in occupation, and are named and located in medieval documents. Successive conquests established various degrees of freedom, the measure of freedom being the degree of immunity from tributes and services. Besides these permanent inhabitants, there were landless immigrants who obtained holdings of land on very exacting terms, mitigated, however, by law after long continued occupancy. At the bottom of the scale, there were slaves, who could be bought, sold, or given away. In historical time, the slaves were never numerous.

In addition there were professional men, the brehons or jurists, the poets and historians, the physicians, the musicians; and with these must be classed the master craftsmen. All these had lands for their support. In the later age, lands were also set apart for the captains of galloglasses and the constables of castles. The law of the family or the _fine_ governed all property in land, including the high proprietorship of the ruler. Under this and other influences, every calling tended to be hereditary in the Irish sense, not necessarily from father to son, but within the legal family group. It is even clear from the annals that the clergy were drawn from certain families much more than from others.

There were common rights over rough land unsuitable for tillage. The remainder of the land was apportioned among family groups. There may have been an older system of a more communal character, for there is a tradition or legend about the enclosure and specific apportionment of the lands of Ireland in the reign of Aodh Sláine, about A.D. 600.

Any king or lord could make grants of land within his jurisdiction; and this can be shown to have been done in every age from the fifth to the sixteenth century.

In every large territory there were church lands. The inhabitants of a church estate formed a little body politic by themselves, with a chief of their own, the _airchinnech_ (oirchinneach, "erenach," or "herenagh"). O'Donovan thought that the lay succession to this title was a consequence of the disorder caused by the Norse wars; in any case, it was merely an assimilation of the temporal government of church lands to the ordinary civil polity. The _airchinnech_ was obliged to provide from his revenue for the support of the clergy and the maintenance of religious services. Otherwise, his status was that of any territorial lord. In medieval Ireland, as elsewhere, we find the conflict between Church and State about the immunity of Church possessions from rendering tributes and services to the secular prince.

On broad and simple lines, the government of an Irish State resembled that of the Roman republic, with the king added as chief officer of State. Authority belonged to the patrician class, conditioned only by the prudential maxim, _is treise tuath na tighearna_--"a people is stronger than a lord." Of the election of a king I know only one detailed account--the last instance in history--the election of Aodh Ruadh O'Domhnaill in 1593. The nobles, meeting apart, came to a decision, and then brought it before the popular assembly for ratification. New laws, and even important legal decisions, such as the sentence of death or deposition of a king, were also proposed for ratification by assemblies.

The executive functions of the king and the relations of subordinate to superior kings are well indicated in a law tract printed by Meyer in _Eriu_. It deals with a case in which a plaintiff or creditor has a claim to recover against a defendant or debtor who belongs to a different State. The plaintiff's king has no jurisdiction over the defendant. He must refer it to the next superior king, called "the king of a major State." If the defendant is outside of this king's jurisdiction, the major king must have recourse to the next higher authority, traditionally called "the king of a fifth." This king, if his jurisdiction does not extend to the defendant, must take the case to the king of Ireland, whose duty it will then be to levy the claim.

From this it follows that, when the parties at litigation were both subjects of the same petty king, it was his duty and function to give effect to the law as between them.

The Irish Record Reports contain particulars of a class of State papers, the Fiants, which, especially for the reign of Elizabeth, contain lists of the principal followers of various Irish chiefs. No one who examines these lists will entertain the illusion that the people of an Irish territory were a homogeneous clan. In a single list of the principal followers of O'Donnell, there are close on 150 distinct surnames, and among these the O'Donnells form a very small fraction. With regard to occupation, in these lists we find gentlemen, yeomen, husbandmen, surgeons, physicians, priests, rhymers, harpers, pipers, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, tailors, butchers, carpenters, masons, etc., and on the military side, horsemen, kerns, and galloglasses.

There is no doubt that life in ancient Ireland was for the most part rural life. It did not reach that social intensity and complexity which are peculiar to towns and to countries in which town life is dominant. Nevertheless it was probably as high a development of rural life as any country had produced in any age.

What I have said about Irish institutions has of necessity taken often the form of an apologia; of necessity, because I have found the balance heavily weighted down. But, one may object, there must have been some radical defect in this ancient civilisation, otherwise its inherent soundness would have been more secure against either castles or saltpetre. How came it that a brave and intelligent and energetic people did not keep itself in the forefront of western development?

My answer to that is, that Ireland was ruled by a patrician class--and that is not all, for other countries have made remarkable progress under a patrician rule. The Irish nobility were rendered incapable of using their intelligence to profit with the times by one defect--they were perhaps the most intensely proud class of men that ever existed. This pride was bred in their bones. It came to them out of an immemorial past. The history of the Gaelic people falls into cycles of four centuries, beginning with our earliest knowledge of the Celts in the Hallstatt Period. There are four centuries of conquest, expansion and domination, before the Celts came to Ireland. By this time, pride of race was already their dominant sentiment. A Latin poet has described a Celtic general:

"Before the rest, the rapid wing of the Boii, led on by Crixus, charges headlong into the foremost ranks and their gigantic limbs engage in battle, Crixus himself, swelling with ancestral pride, boasted his descent from Brennus, and bore for his token the capture of the Capitol. His shield depicted the Celts weighing out the gold of Rome. His milk-white neck gleamed with a golden torque, his raiment was embroidered with gold, the sleeves were stiff with gold, and the same metal formed his helmet's nodding crest."

Four centuries more established the Celtic rule in Ireland. Their rule in Ireland remained secure during four centuries of Roman domination in Gaul and Britain. During four centuries of Germanic invasion and conquest, Ireland stood intact. After four centuries of Norse supremacy over neighbouring seas and lands, Ireland emerged unconquered. Two thousand years of unbroken sway may suffice to set pride above prudence in the tradition of any class. At the end of another cycle, when the Irish nobles were scattered over Europe, the nobility of their bearing and the distinction of their manners won admiration for them in every land but one.

This intense pride is blazoned on the pages of our medieval literature, in annals, genealogies, stories, poems. The poets lived by ministering to it. In this respect, too, we can see the analogy with a good deal of modern journalism.

Too much pride blinded the native rulers of Ireland to the insecurity of their state, and made them careless of their safety, and neglectful of the measures it required. Glorying in the long vista of their past, they did not look before them. They were conservative, inadaptable, unproviding. Herein lay the fatal weakness of medieval Ireland.

We are now nearing the end of the seventh cycle. It has brought us a different experience. I must not speculate upon the outcome. If only I have succeeded in convincing you that Irish history must contain life, movement, colour, coherence, and human interest, beyond anything depicted of it in many books that have been written about it, with that and the recollection of your kind support I make a well contented conclusion.

INDEX

A

Aed Bennán (Aoḋ Beannán), power of, 237 Agricola conquers the Britons, 36; intends the conquest of Ireland, 136 Ailbhe, Saint, date of, 161 Ailech (Oileaċ), kingdom of, 184; growth in power, 277 airchinnech (oirċinneaċ, "erenagh," "herenagh"), office of, 351 airecht (oireaċt), court of assembly, 320 Airgialla (Oirġialla, "Oriel"), 126; varying extent of, 185, 278 Aithech-thuatha, 148 Amorgen (Aṁairġean, Aiṁirgean), legend of, 97 Anglo-Norman aggression, false pretext of, 286 Anglo-Norman conquest, failure of, 323; supposed causes of failure, 324; extent of, 327; rally begins against, 328; details of rally, 335 Anglo-Norman invasion, destructive effects of, 308-311 Anglo-Normans, Irish assimilation of, 341 Annals, restricted scope of the, 178 Aristocracy, intense pride of, 354 Armagh founded, 160; school of, a national university, 284 Assemblies, 138, 320; of the learned, 344 Atecotti, 144, 146, 147-149

B

Bede describes Ireland, 195; relates Irish migration to Scotland, 195, 196 Belach Mugna (Bealaċ Muġna "Ballaghmoon"), battle of, 260 Belgae, origin of, 18; "Brythons," a supposed branch of, 42 Belgic migrations, 52; extended to Ireland, 57 Bernard, Saint, of Clairvaux, his interest in Ireland, 281 Black Pig's Dyke, 131 "Book of Invasions," a national epic, 96 "Book of Rights," contents of, 274 Bóramha tribute, 238 Brega (Breaġa, "Bregia"), kingdom of, 235 Bregon (Breoġan), legend of, 93 Brian Bóramha, birth of, 266; his allies, 268; his policy, 269-272 Britain, Irish invasion of, 141; Irish settlements in, 155 British ethnography exemplified, 32 Britons, effect of Roman conquest on, 34-37; displaced from Scotland, 202; in Irish wars, 203 Brittani, Brittania, origin of the names, 58 Bronze Age in Ireland, date of, 43; not Celtic, 44-46, 70; tillage in Ireland during, 72 Brown Earl of Ulster, 339 Bruce, Edward, chosen king of Ireland, 334; comes to Ireland, 337 Bruce, Robert, sovereignty of Ireland offered to, 333, 337 "Brythons," 34, 43, 45

C

Cæsar, Julius on Ireland, 134 Caledones, 143 Cathal, king of Munster, 237 Cashel (Caiseal Muṁan) "discovered," 127; synod of, 286 Cellachán (Ceallaċán), king of Munster, 266 Celtae of Gallia Celtica, supposed identity of Gaels with, 42 Celtic antiquity, growth of learned and popular interest in, 6-9 Celtic migrations to Britain and Ireland, current British theory of, 32; approximate earliest date of, 48; traditions concerning, 49, 50; archaeological evidence of, 51, 52 Celtic origin of Gaels and Britons forgotten by themselves, brought to light by Buchanan, 4-5 Celtic religion, 30 Celtic resistance to Norsemen, 254 Celtic studies: initiated by Buchanan, 5; developed by Llwyd, 6; stimulated by Gray, 7; and still more by Macpherson, 8 Celtic words in the Germanic languages, 17, 18 Celto-Germanic population, 18-25 Celts: the name indicative of linguistic not racial descent, 1-3; earliest accounts of, early relations with Germans, 15-25; ancient civilisation of, 25 Cerdraige (Ceardraiġe), 76 Christian era in Irish chronology, 223 Christians in Ireland before St. Patrick, 161-167 Chronology of pre-Christian Ireland, 49 Church, effect of the Anglo-Norman invasion on the, 288, 308 Church lands, 351 Ciarán of Saighir, Saint, 161 "Cities" in Ireland, mentioned by Ptolemy, 137, 138 "Clan system," notions of, 289, 349, 353 Clann Cholmáin dynasty, 236 Clontarf, character of the battle of, 272; effect on Norsemen, 273 Cóiced (cúigeaḋ), significance of, 101 Coirpre Nia Fer (Cairbre Nia Fear), king of North Leinster, 104, 106 Collas, the Three, 124 Columban monasteries, reorganisation of, 284 Commios and his sons, 167-170 Communal land tenure, true and false notions of, 295, 351 Connacht (Connaċta), ancient extent of, 112, 186 Constantine, Donation of, 17 Copper mines in Ireland, their remote antiquity, 71 Copper Period in Ireland, 43, 70 Copper rivets, ancient industry in, 75 Corcu Loegdae (Corca Laoiġḋe), 162 Cormac, king of Munster, 260 Cormac, king of Tara, 120; his reign an epoch, 124 Craftsmen enfranchised, 229 Crinna, battle of, 120 Cruithin, the Irish name of the Picts, 59, 63 Cu Chulainn, 79 Cu Rói (Cú Raoi), 102

D

Dáirine, 162 Dál Araidhe, 185 Dál gCais, "Dalcassians," rising power of, 266, 268 Dál Riada, 185, 194-200, 203 Danes arrive in Ireland, 253 Danish kings of the Hebrides, 212 Dathi=Nath-Í, 157 De Burgh family, their alleged change in policy, 340 Déclán (Diaglán), Saint, 161 Derbfine (Deirḃḟine), significance of, 230, 290 Dési, Déisi, migration of, 109, 128 Druim Ceata, assembly of, 197 Dublin first fortified, 251; becomes seat of Norse kingdom, 252; battle of, 264 Dumbarton, "stronghold of the Britons," 198, 204; captured by Dublin Norsemen, 255 Dynastic polity, 177

E

Eblana, Eblani, 137 Ecclesiastical reform, 281-288 Éire, Ériu, origin of the name, 67 Emain (an Eaṁain, "the Navan"), 115 England before the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland, 305; racial type now prevalent in, 39 English invade Ireland, A.D. 684, 201 English power recovered through firearms and artillery, 347 Eochu Feidlech (Eoċaiḋ Feiḋleac), 118 Eochu MacLuchtai (Eoċaiḋ mac Luċta), king of Munster, 103, 104 Eterscél (Eidirsgéal), king of Ireland, 109 Eoghanachta, origin of, 127; states of, 186; maximum power and decline of, 260-262 Érainn, Érna, "Erneans," 65-68, 104 (--Iverni) "erenagh"=airchinnech Etruscan alphabet in Cisalpine Gaul, 167 Eusebius, Irish writers influenced by, 89

F

Feidhlimidh, king of Munster, 259 Feidhlimidh, king of Connacht, career of, 328 Fer Diad (Fear Diaḋ), 79 Fergus (Fearġus) defends the Galians, 81 Fergus mac Eire, 116, 194 Fiachu Sroibtine (Fiaċa Sraiftine), 124 Fiana, 150 Find Fili (Fionn File), king of South Leinster, 104, 106, 110 Fionn Bheara a Celtic god, 87 Fir Bolg, 77, 79 Fir Domhnann, 79 Fir Iboth (iḃoṫ), 74 (=Ebudeans) FitzGerald, Maurice, career of, 328 Five-fold division of Ireland in ancient tradition, 102 Flemish settlers in Ireland, 303 Fochairt, battle of, 338 Fochla, kingdom of the, 185 Fomori (Foṁoraiġ), 85, 87

G

Gabhair in Leinster between the two ancient provinces, 107 Gaelic settlements in Britain, origin of, 46 Gaels, legendary origin of, 90 Galians (Gaileoin), 80, 104 Gall-Ghaedhil or Norse-Irish, 211, 252 Gallógláich, "galloglasses," 326; commanders of, 334; first record of, 336; spread of, 341 Gaulish settlers in Ireland, 128 Genealogies help to explain the annals, 179, 183, 194 Geography in ancient Irish schools, 92 Germans and Celts, early relations between, 15-25 Glacial period in Ireland, 69 Gold in ancient Ireland, 71 Gormlaith, career of, 262 Government of an Irish state, character of, 352 Grants of land, 297; to Gallóglach commanders, 335 Grants of lordship, 177 Greek alphabet used in Gaul, 167 Greek in ancient Irish schools, 243

H

Hakon, king of Norway, loses control of Hebrides, 216; Irish sovereignty offered to, 332 Heathen lore, ancient Irish, 176 Hebrides, 74 Hebridean forces, 325; first appearance in Ireland, 329 Heptarchy in Ireland, 113 "herenagh"--airchinnech Hiberni, Hibernia, origin of the names, 67 History of Ireland, how constructed by ancient writers, 89, 98; earliest documents of, 114, 175; distorted views of, 347

I

Ibar (Iuḃar), Saint, date of, 161 Ibdaig (Iḃḋaiġ), Ebudeans, 74 Iberi in Irish legend, 91 Iberians, supposed early inhabitants of Britain, 40-42; supposed traces of, 62 Inber Scéne (Inḃear Sgéine), legend of, 93-95 Incastellation policy of Anglo-Normans adopted by Irish, 343 Industrial tribes of pre-Celtic origin, 75-79, 82 Intercourse with the Continent, 242 Iona granted to St. Columba, 197 Irish civilisation, chief defect of, 354 Irish forces under Roman command, 151 Irish language, ancient learned jargon of, 165 Irish law, features of, 312 Irish learning, characteristics of, 240-244 Irish manuscript orthography, origin of, 174 Iron Age in Britain, supposed to have been introduced by Belgae, 42 Iron, Celtic expansion facilitated by possession of, 153 Iverni, 65-68, 104

K

Kenneth MacAlpin (Cionaoḋ mac Ailpín), 204 Kingship, law of succession to, 230 Kings, functions of, 352

L

Lagin Tuad-Gabair (Laiġin Tuadḋ-Gaḃair), L. Des-Gabair (Deas-Gaḃair), 107 Latin in ancient Irish schools, 241 "Laudabiliter," 286 Law, courts of, 318 Law of succession, evil consequences of, 294, 300 Learning in Ireland, Zimmer's account, 164; testimony of Saint Columbanus, 166 Leinster, ancient extent of, 108, 122, 129, 186; struggle for lost territory of, 188; tribute, 238 Letters in Britain, introduction of, 167-170 Limerick, Norse settlement at, 262 Lincolnshire, pseudo-scientific ethnography exemplified in the case of, 32 Literature in Ireland, beginnings of, 167 Loeguire (Laoġaire), king of Ireland, 182, 188 Luaighni, 80, 104 Luguid (Luġaiḋ), king of Ireland, 190-193

M

MacCába ("MacCabe") family, 334 MacDomhnaill ("MacDonnell, MacConnell." etc.) family, 334; obtains Irish territory, 219, 342 MacDubhghaill ("MacDugall, MacDowell, Doyle, Coyle") family, 334 MacRuaidhri ("MacRory, Rogers") family, 334 MacSíthigh ("MacSheehy, Sheehy, Shee") family, 334 MacSuibhne ("MacSweeney, Sweeny") family, 334; first record of, 335 MagRoth, MaġRaṫ=Moira Magnus, king of Norway, fails to restore Norse power, 280 Malachy (Maol m'Aoḋóg), Saint, 281 Mathgamain (Maṫġaṁain) overthrows Eoghanacht dynasty, 268 Matriarchy, a Pictish custom, 59 Medb (Meaḋḃ), 80, 118 Medraige (Meaḋraiġe), 82 Midhe, early extent of, 113; partition of, 235 Míl, legend of, 91-95 Military organisation disappears, 229, 235, 251, 267; reintroduced, 325 Military tribes of pre-Celtic origin, 79-82 Moira, battle of, 199 Monarchy, Irish, fictitious accounts of, 115, 239; origin of, 118; held by Connacht dynasty, 130; detached from Connacht dynasty, 192; succession to, 231, 238; in abeyance, 272; restored in depraved form, 273 Muirchertach MacErca, king of Ireland, 190-193 Muirchertach, king of Ailech, career of, 266 Muiredach Tírech (Muireaḋaċ Tíreaċ), 124 Munster, ancient extent of, 108, 126, 186; increasing power of, 236; ecclesiastical kings of, 258 Mythological inhabitants of Ireland, 85 Mythology of Irish Celts shows traces of continental origin, 87; transformed by Christian writers, 88

N

Nationality, ancient Irish conception of, 96; characteristic development of, 224-229; conscious sense of, 244-248 Nath-Í, 157 Nemed (Neiṁeaḋ), 88 Neolithic Age in Ireland, 69 Nia Segomon (Nia Seaġaṁan), 127 Niall Glundubh, king of Ireland, 263 Niall of the Nine Hostages, 129, 130, 157; settlements of his kindred, 180-185 Norman statecraft, 301 Normans, so called, in Ireland, their racial, linguistic, and political affinities, 302 Norman plan of conquest, 304 North Leinster kingdom, fall of, 122 Nuadu (Nuaḋa. Nodons), a Celtic god, 95 Norse invasions begin, 203, 249; Celtic resistance to, 205; conquests in Scotland, 205; kingdom of Hebrides and Argyle, 211-220; earliest settlements in Ireland, 251; power in England and France, 254; expelled from northern Ireland, 255; adopt a settled life, 265, 273; demoralisation caused by, 281

O

Ocha, importance of the battle of, 190, 231 Oengus (Aonġus), a Celtic god, 86 Oengus (Aonġus), king of Munster, 128 O'Farrell (Ua Fearġail) territory extended, 336 Ogham alphabet, origin of, 170; inscriptions, range and time of, 173 Ogmios, Ogme (Oġma), a Celtic god, 171 Oileach=Ailech oirchinnea=chairchinnech oireacht=airecht Oirghialla=Airgialla O'Neill, Brian, career of, 328; chosen chief king, 331 O'Neill dynasty, increased power of, 343 Oriel=Airgialla Orosius, Irish writers influenced by, 90, 92-95 Ovoca, curious origin of the name, 139

P

"P-Celts" and "Q-Celts," 43, 46 Paganism, survival of, 224 Palæolithic Age not represented in Ireland, 68 Palladius, Saint, mission of, 163 Parthalón, 39, 88 Patrick, Saint, 159; date of his death, 222; Bury's account of, 225 Pelagius, 164 Pentarchy in Irish tradition, 100 Picts, supposed to be Iberians, 41; Ireland and Britain named from, 59; in Ireland and Scotland, 62-65; legendary origin of, 64; in Ireland, 74; in Ulster, 120, 185; earliest mention of, 141; in Connacht, 180; their kingdom in Scotland overthrown, 204; they lose territory in Ulster, 233 Pliny on Ireland, 135 Political system in ancient Ireland, 274-278 Pomponius Mela on Ireland, 134 Poseidonios on Ireland, 133 Pre-Celtic population of Ireland, 73 Pre-Celtic metal workers, 75, 76 Pretani, significance of the name, 59, 62 Primitive races, assumptions regarding, 83 Property in land, 295-299 Ptolemy on Ireland, 136

Q

Qreteni, an ancient name for the Picts, 59

R

Race, true and false notions of, 1, 2 Racial fusion in Ireland, 229 Red Earl of Ulster, 336 Revolt against Gaelic rule, 80, 119 Rígdamna (ríoġḋaṁna), precise meaning of, 231 Roman empire, collapse of, 158 Roman military system influences Ireland, 150 "Rosnaree," Ros na Ríoġ, battle of, 103

S