Chapter 99

PROGRESS OF HUMANE SENTIMENT: PROGRESS TOWARD THE UNITY OF MANKIND.

As an era of invention and discovery, the nineteenth century is a rival of the fifteenth.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES.--Too much was already known of the globe to leave room for another so stupendous discovery as that of the New World. Nevertheless, many important geographical discoveries have been made, especially since about 1825. Geographical societies without number have been founded, of which the Royal Geographical Society in England (1830) is one of the best known. Geographical knowledge is increased in two ways,--first, by the discovery of places not before known; and secondly, by the scientific examination of countries and districts, with accurate surveys, and the making of maps. In both these departments, especially in the latter, the recent period won distinction. The _Russians_ in their advance rendered the regions of Northern and Central Asia accessible to travelers. Not only India, but also extensive districts in Central Asia, have been explored by the British. China has been traversed by a succession of travelers, and Japan has unbarred its gates for the admission of foreigners. Abyssinia has been traversed. The mystery respecting the sources of the Nile has been dispelled by _Speke_, _Grant_, and _Baker_. In 1822 and 1825 _Clapperlon_, in two journeys, went over the whole route from Tripoli to the coast of Guinea. In 1830 _Richard_ and _John Lander_ settled the question as to the outlet of the _Niger_. _Barth_, and other later explorers, have carried forward the study of the course of this great river, in the exploration of which _Mungo Park_ lost his life (1806). In 1816 the Congo was explored to the falls of Yellala. The travels of _Schweinfurth_, _Livingstone_, _Barth_, _Cameron_, and _Stanley_ have greatly enlarged our acquaintance with formerly unknown portions of the African continent. In 1879 _Stanley_, commissioned by King _Leopold_ of Belgium, opened up communication with the populous basin of the Congo. During the struggle of the European states to acquire colonial territory, no part of the continent remained unexplored. European rivalries also had similar important consequences to geography in Asia, especially in the Trans-Caspian region and in Tibet. Dr. Sven Hedin was the most successful of the explorers in Tibet, traversing wholly unknown districts. Unknown regions on the American continent, in South America, in far north-western North America, and in Labrador, have been visited. The same is true of the interior of Australia. The eagerness to find a north-western passage (and later in scientific exploration) has led to hazardous and not unfruitful expeditions under _Ross_, _Parry_, _Franklin_, _Kane_, _Markham_, _McClintock_, _Greely_, and other voyagers. In 1875 _Markham_ reached the highest latitude that up to that time had been attained (83° 21' 26"). A still higher point (86° 14') was reached by Dr. Nansen who in 1893 started to drift in the _Fram_ across the polar regions. In 1892 Lieutenant Peary crossed Greenland from the west coast to a part of the north-east coast never before visited. The Antarctic seas were also explored first by the _Challenger_ in 1874. By 1900 the farthest point reached was 78° 50'. Geography has become a much more profound and instructive science. The physical character of the globe, and of the atmosphere that surrounds it, have been studied in their relation to man and history. Physical geography, or physiography, has thus arisen. In recent years scientists have gone far in the study of the physical geography of the sea, in making maps of its bottom, and in the endeavor to define the system of oceanic winds and currents. In connection with physical geography, the distribution of animal life on the land and in the depths of the sea has been studied, and much valuable information gained.

FOUR INVENTIONS.--Among the useful inventions of the present century, there are four which are of preëminent consequence. The honor connected with each of these, as is generally the case with great inventions, belongs to no individual exclusively. Several, and in some cases many persons, can fairly claim a larger or smaller share in it. (1) The most efficient agent in bringing the _steam-engine_ to perfection was _James Watt_ (1736-1819), a native of Scotland. (2) In connection with the application of steam to navigation, no name stands higher than that of _Robert Fulton_. (3) Carriages on railroads were at first drawn by horses. In 1814 _George Stephenson_, in England, invented the locomotive, and afterwards (1829) an improved construction of it.

The first great railroad for the transportation of passengers began to run between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830. Remarkable achievements in engineering have been connected with the construction of railways. The Alps were pierced, and the Mont Cenis tunnel was completed in 1871. The principal civilized countries have gradually become covered with networks of railways. The whole method of transportation of the products of industry has been altered by them. Besides their vast influence in facilitating and stimulating travel and trade, they have modified the method of conducting warfare, with very important results. (4) In contriving the _electric telegraph_, _Wheatstone_, an Englishman, _Oersted_, a Dane, and _Henry_, an American, had each an important part. The most simple and efficient form of the telegraphic instrument is admitted to be due to the inventive sagacity of _Morse_ (1837). His instrument was first put in use in 1844. The first submarine wires connecting Europe with America transmitted messages in 1858, between England and the United States. Since that time numerous submarine cables have been laid in different parts of the globe. Upon the invention of the telegraph, another invention--that of the _telephone_--has followed, by which conversation can be held with the voice between distant places. By the phonograph it has become possible to reproduce audibly songs, speeches, and conversations. Still more recently a system of wireless telegraphy has been invented by which messages may be sent even across the Atlantic without the use of a cable.

The Suez Canal, a channel for ships, connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, and opening thus a shorter highway by water between Europe and the East, was officially opened on the 17th of November, 1869.

USES OF STEAM.--The practical applications of steam, besides its use in the propulsion of vessels, and of carriages on railways, are numberless. It is used, for example, in automobiles, in traction engines, in plowing and harvesting machinery, in fire-engines, in road-rollers, and in all sorts of hoisting and conveying machinery.

Steam forge hammers were invented by _Nasmyth_, an engineer of Manchester, in 1839. In a multitude of industrial occupations, where water-power was once used, or tools and machines whose use involved muscular exertion, the work is now done by the energy of steam. More recently electricity has been displacing steam not only on street railroads and suburban railroads, but also in many other industrial processes, as well as the lighting of buildings and streets.

TOOLS AND MACHINES.--In modern days no small amount of skill has been directed to the devising of tools and machines for the more facile and exact production of whatever costs labor. Factories have become monuments of ingenuity, and museums in the useful arts. Improved machinery lightens the toil of the sailor. Machines in a great variety facilitate agricultural labor. They open the furrow, sow the seed, reap and winnow the harvest. In-doors, the sewing-machine performs a great part of the labor formerly done by the fingers of the seamstress. The art of printing has attained to a marvelous degree of progress. _Hoe's_ printing-press, moved by steam, seizes on the blank paper, severs it from the roll in sheets of the right size, prints it on both sides, and folds it in a convenient shape,--all with miraculous rapidity. Inventions in rock-boring and rock-drilling have made it possible to tunnel mountains. The use of explosives for mechanical purposes is a highly important fact in connection with the modern labor-saving inventions.

INDIA RUBBER.--Shoes made of _caoutchouc_, the thickened milky juice of the india-rubber plant, were imported from Brazil to Boston as early as 1825. Improvements in the use of this material, in the solid form and in solution, were made by Mr. _Macintosh_ of Glasgow, and _Thomas Hancock_ of Newington, England, about 1820. From the dissolved caoutchouc, a coating was obtained making garments water-proof. In 1839 _Charles Goodyear_, an American, discovered the process of vulcanizing india-rubber,--that is, producing in it a chemical change whereby its valuable qualities are greatly enhanced. The material thus procured was applied to a great number of uses. It enters into a great variety of manufactured articles.

ENGINERY OF WAR.--A continual advance has been made in the construction of the implements of war. The whole science and art of war have been fundamentally changed, mainly in consequence of these modern inventions. Reference may be made to the invention of _rifled cannon_, heavier ordnance, breech-loading guns, and shells and explosive bullets. It was the _needle-gun_ of the Prussians, which gave them a signal advantage in their war with the French. The building of armored battle ships has been followed by the construction of small swift vessels from which to launch torpedoes at the battle ships. Other swift vessels have been constructed to pursue and destroy the torpedo boat. High explosives and smokeless powder have also been invented.

THE TELESCOPE AND MICROSCOPE.--Among the instruments which have promoted the extension of science, the microscope, with its modern improvements, is one of the most interesting. It has aided discovery in botany, in physiology, in mineralogy, and in almost all other branches of science. It has even assisted in the detection of crime. The large refracting telescopes have been constructed within the last few decades. Telescopes have recently been used with increasing success in photographing the heavens with accuracy.

INSTRUMENTS IN MEDICINE AND SURGERY.--The microscope has rendered inestimable service to the healing art. Rare ingenuity has been exerted in contriving surgical instruments by which difficult operations are performed with comparative safety and without pain. In medicine and surgery, the discovery of _anesthetics_ for the general or partial suspending of nervous sensibility is one of the triumphs of practical science in later times. _Chloroform_ was brought into general use in the medical profession in 1847; although it had been discovered, and had been used by individuals in the profession, much earlier. _Nitrous oxide_ was first used by _Horace Wells_, a dentist of Hartford, in the extraction of a tooth (1844). In 1846 the great discovery of anæsthetic _ether_, by _Morton_ of Boston, was first applied in surgery. _Jackson_ and others were claimants, with more or less justice, to a part in the honors of this discovery. Lately _cocaine_ has been found to benumb the sensibility of the more delicate membranes, as those of the eye and the throat. In _auscultation_, or the ascertaining of the state of the internal organs by listening to their sound, a very valuable instrument is the _stethoscope_. The principle of the _ophthalmoscope_, that wonderful instrument for inspecting the interior of the eye, was expounded by _Helmholtz_ in 1851. By its aid, not only the condition of that organ is explored, but indications of certain diseases in the brain, and in other parts of the body, are discovered. Helmholtz did an equal work in acoustics. The recent discovery and use of the _X-rays_ has assisted surgeons in locating foreign substances and in diagnosing disease.

THE SPECTROSCOPE: PHOTOGRAPHY.--In connection with the phenomena of light, the _spectroscope_, by which the chemical elements entering in the composition of the sun and of other heavenly bodies are ascertained, is one of the marvels of the age. The way was paved for this discovery by a succession of chemists and opticians,--_Fraunhofer_ (1814), _Brewster_ (1832), _Sir John Herschel_ (1822), _J. W. Draper_, and others; but the instrument was devised by _Kirchhoff_ and _Bunsen_. _Photography_, or the art of making permanent sun-pictures, is the result of the labors of _Niepce_ (who died in 1833), _Daguerre_ (1839), _Fox Talbot_, an Englishman, _J. W. Draper_, and other men of science and practical artisans. _Instantaneous_ photography has been of much service in the observation of eclipses and other astronomical phenomena. Progress has also been made in color-photography.

THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.--Perhaps the most important conclusion of physical science which has been reached in the recent period is the doctrine of the conservation of energy. Chemists had shown that the sum of matter always remains the same. In the transformations of chemistry no matter is destroyed, however it may change its form. Now, it has been proved that the quantity of power or energy is constant. If lost in one body, it reappears in another; if it ceases in one form, it is exerted in another, and this according to definite ratios. One form of energy is convertible into another: heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemical action, are so related that one can be made to produce either of the others. This fact is termed the _correlation_ of physical forces. Connected with the discovery of it are _Meyer_ in Germany, and _Grove_ and _Joule_ in England. It has been expounded by _Sir William Thompson_, _Helmholtz_, _Tait_, _Maxwell_, etc. The truth was elucidated by _Tyndall_ in his _Heat considered as a Mode of Motion_, and by _Balfour Stewart_ in his _Conservation of Energy_. But _Count Rumford_, an American (1753-1814), the real founder of the Royal Institution, long ago opened the path for this discovery by furnishing the data for computing the mechanical equivalent of heat.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.--In geology, from the publication of _Lyell's_ work (1830), the tendency has more and more prevailed to explain the geological structure of the earth by the slow operation of forces now in action, rather than by violent convulsions and catastrophes. In 1831 _Sedgwick_ and _Murchison_, likewise English geologists, commenced their labors. _Agassiz_ published his Essay on the Glaciers in 1837, the precursor of like investigations by _Tyndall_ and others. These are only a small fraction of the numerous body of explorers and writers in geological science. In the United States, _Benjamin Silliman_ (1779-1864), an eminent scientific teacher, lent a strong stimulus to the progress of geology, as well as of chemistry. Even in the branch of _paleontology_, or the study of the fossil remains of extinct animals, it would be impracticable to give the names of those who have added so much to our knowledge of the earth and its inhabitants in the ages that preceded man.

ASTRONOMY.--The great French geometers, _Lagrange_ and _Laplace_, made an epoch in astronomical science. Since their time, however, there has been a large increase of knowledge in this branch. The discovery of the planet Neptune (1846) by _Galle_, as the result of mathematical calculations of _Leverrier_, which were made independently also by _Adams_, was hailed as a signal proof of scientific progress; and, recently, the discovery of a fifth satellite of Jupiter. Besides Neptune hundreds of thousands of stars have been discovered and registered. Mathematical astronomy has advanced, while the study of nebulae and of meteors, and the investigation of the constitution of celestial bodies by the help of the spectroscope, are among the more recent achievements of this oldest of the sciences. Among the names identified with the recent progress of astronomy are _Sir John Herschel_ and _A. Herschel_, _Maxwell_, _Struve_, _Secchi_, _Bessel_, _Bond_, _Peirce_, _Newton_, _Newcomb_, _Young_, _Lockyer_, _Schiaparelli_.

PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY.--In chemistry the major part of the more rare elements have been discovered since the century began. It was proved in 1819 that the capacities for heat which belong to the atoms of the different elements are equal. In the same year _Mitscherlich's_ law was propounded,--the law of _isomorphism_, according to which atoms of elements of the same class may replace each other in a compound without altering its crystalline structure. Chemists have directed their attention to the _molecular_ structure--the ultimate constitution--of various compounds. _Faraday_ (1791-1867) developed the relations of electricity to chemistry. _Liebig_ (1803-1873), a German chemist, in connection with numerous laborers in the same field, made interesting contributions in the different departments of chemical science. Among the recent elements which have been discovered are argon, which enters into the composition of air, helium, and radium.

BIOLOGY.--No branch of natural science has been more zealously cultivated of late than _biology_. Among those who have given an impulse to the study of natural history, one of the most eminent names is that of _Charles Darwin_. His work on _The Origin of Species_ (1859) advocated the opinion that the various species of animals, instead of being all separately created, spring by natural descent and slow variation from a few primitive forms of animal life. He laid much stress upon "natural selection," or the survival of the strongest or fittest in the struggle for existence. With the name of Darwin should be associated that of _Wallace_, who simultaneously propounded the same doctrine. The general doctrine of _evolution_, or of the origin of species by natural generation, has been held in other forms and modifications by _Richard Owen_, and other distinguished naturalists. One of the most noted opponents of the evolution doctrine in zoology was _Louis Agassiz_ (1807-1873), a very able and enthusiastic student of nature. One of its most eminent expounders and defenders was _Huxley_. Some have sought to extend the theory of natural development over the field of inorganic as well as living things, and to trace all existences back to nebulous vapor.

ARCHEOLOGY.--Geology lends its aid to _archeology_, or the inquiry into the primitive condition of man. Not only has much light been thrown on obscure periods of history, by the uncovering of the remains of Babylon, Assyria, and other abodes of early civilization, and by the deciphering of monumental inscriptions in characters long forgotten; but the discovery of buried relics of prehistoric men has afforded glimpses of human life as it was prior to all written memorials. One of the most instructive writers on this last subject is _Tylor_ in his _Primitive Culture_, and in other works on the same general theme.

PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE.

PHILOSOPHY IN FRANCE.--_Victor Cousin_ (1792--1867), a brilliant thinker and eloquent lecturer and writer, founded in France the _eclectic school_ of philosophy. He aimed to construct a positive view on the basis of previous systems, which he classified under four heads,--_idealism_, _sensualism_, _skepticism_, and _mysticism_. In his teaching, he sought a middle path between the German and the Scottish schools, leaning now more decidedly to the one, and now to the other. _Jouffroy_ (1796-1842), the most prominent of _Cousin's_ disciples, but more exact and methodical than his master, wrote instructively, especially on _aesthetics_ and _moral philosophy_. Philosophy in France took an altogether different direction in the hands of _Auguste Comte_ (1798-1857), the founder of the _positivist_ school. He taught that we know only phenomena, or things as manifested to our consciousness, and know nothing either of first causes, efficient causes, or of final causes (or design). We are limited to the ascertaining of facts by observation and experiment, which we register according to their likeness or unlikeness, and their chronological relation, or the order of their occurrence in time.

SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHY.--The most distinguished expounder of the _Scottish_ philosophy, and the most learned of that whole school, was _Sir William Hamilton_ (1788-1856). He maintained the doctrine of _natural realism_,--that we have a direct, "face to face" perception of external things. He held that the range of the mind's power of conceptive thought lies between two _inconceivables_, one of which must be real. Thus we can not conceive of free-will (which would be a new beginning), nor can we conceive of an endless series of causes. Free-will--and the same is true of the fundamental truths of religion--is verified to us as real by our moral nature. A Scottish writer of ability, who, however, opposed the peculiar tenets of the Scottish school, was _Ferrier_ (1808-1864). Among the other philosophical writers of Scotland, affiliated, but with different degrees of dissent, with the school of Reid and Hamilton, are Professors _Fraser_ and _Calderwood_, and the late _James McCosh_.

PHILOSOPHY IN ENGLAND.--More allied to the philosophy of Hume and of Comte are the metaphysical theories of _John Stuart Mill_ (1806-1873). _Intuitions_ were regarded by Mill as the impression produced by a frequent conjunction of like experiences, and thus to be the product of sensation. _Causation_ was resolved into the invariable association of phenomena, by which an expectation is created that seems instinctive. Another writer of the same general tendency, who seeks for the explanation of knowledge in the materials furnished by the senses, is _Alexander Bain_, a Scottish author, versed in physiology. _Herbert Spencer_ constructed a general system of philosophy on the basis of the theory of evolution. He holds that our knowledge is limited to _phenomena_, which are the manifestation in our consciousness of things which in themselves are unknown; and that behind and below all is "the Unknowable,"--an inscrutable force, out of which the universe of matter and mind is developed, and which gives to it unity and coherence.

PHILOSOPHY IN GERMANY.--In Germany the decline of the school of _Hegel_ was succeeded by a sort of anarchy in philosophy. _Herbart_ (1776-1841), a contemporary of _Hegel_, framed a system antagonistic to Hegelian idealism. Among numerous metaphysical authors, each of whom has a "standpoint" of his own, are the justly distinguished names of _Fichte_ (the younger), _Ulrici, Trendelenburg_, and _Hermann Lotze. Lotze._ in his _Microcosm_, has unfolded, in a style attractive to the general reader, profound and genial views of man, nature, and religion. A remarkable phenomenon in German speculation is "pessimism,"--the doctrine gravely propounded in the systems of _Schopenhauer_ and _E. Von Hartmann_, that the world is radically and essentially evil, and personal existence a curse from which the refuge is in the hope of annihilation. In its view of the world as springing from an unconscious force, and of the extinction of consciousness as the state of bliss, as well as in its notions of evil as inwrought in the essence of things, this philosophy is a revival of Indian Oriental speculation. Historical and critical writings in the department of philosophy abound in Germany. The histories of philosophy by _Ritter, Erdmann, Zeller, Kuno Fischer,_ and _Lange_, are works of remarkable merit.

PHILOSOPHY IN ITALY.--Among the Italian metaphysicians, the two writers who are most noteworthy are _Rosmini_ (1797-1855), who taught idealism; and _Gioberti_ (1801-1882), whose system is on a different basis,--a gifted writer who was equally conspicuous as a statesman and a philosopher.

PHILOSOPHY IN THE UNITED STATES.--Philosophy in America has been zealously cultivated, both in connection with theology and apart from it, by a considerable number of teachers and writers. Among them are _James Marsh, C. S. Henry, Francis Wayland, L. P. Hickok, H. B. Smith_, and other eminent authors, mostly of a more recent date.

POLITICAL ECONOMY.--_Ricardo_ (1772-1823), who followed _Adam Smith_ (p. 492), dealt more in abstractions and processes of logic, than his predecessor. The writings of _Ricardo_, together with the discussions of _Malthus_ (1766-1834) on population,--in which it was maintained that the tendency to an increase of population outstrips the increase of the means of subsistence,--led to numerous other writings.

Political economy was handled in productions by _James Mill_ (1821), _J. R. McCulloch, N. W. Senior_ (1790-1864), _R. Torrens_ (1780-1864), _Harriet Martineau_ (1802-1876), _Thomas Chalmers_, the celebrated Scottish divine, Archbishop _Richard Whately, Richard Jones_ (1790-1855), a critic of the system of _Ricardo_, and others. An eminent writer, an expositor with important modifications of the Ricardian teaching, is _John Stuart Mill_ (1806-1873). _Fawcett_ and other able authors have followed for the most part in Mill's path. An English author of distinction in this field is _J. E. Cairnes_ (1824-1875). The French school of economists have adhered to the principles of _Adam Smith_ much more than have the Germans. Among the most noted of the French authors in this field are _Say_ (1767-1832), whose views are founded on those of _Smith; Sismondi_ (1773-1842), who, however, departs from the English doctrine, and favors the intervention of government to "regulate the progress of wealth"; _Dunoyer_ (1786-1862); _Bastiat_ (1801-1850), one of the most brilliant advocates of free-trade; _Cournot_ (1801-1877), who applies, with much acumen, mathematics to economical questions. In America, since the days of _Franklin_ and _Hamilton_, both of whom wrote instructively on these topics, a number of writers of ability have appeared. Among them are _H. C. Carey_, who opposes the views of _Ricardo_ and _Malthus_, and defends the theory of protection; _Francis Bowen_, also a protectionist; _F. A. Walker, Perry_, etc. In Italy, there have not been wanting productions of marked acuteness in this department. Of the numerous German writers, one of the most eminent is _List_ (1798-1846), a critic of _Adam Smith_, and not an adherent of the unqualified doctrine of free-trade. In the list of later English writers, the names of _Bagehot, Leslie, Jevons_, and _Sidgwick_ are quite prominent. With regard to free-trade and protection, the latter doctrine has been maintained in two forms. Some have regarded protection as the best _permanent_ policy for a nation to adopt. Others have defended it as a _provisional_ policy, to shield manufactures in their infancy, until they grow strong enough to compete, without help, with foreign products. After the repeal of the corn-laws in England (1846), the free-trade doctrine prevailed in England. Since _Comte_ published his exposition of _Sociology_ (1839), the tendency has arisen to consider political economy as one branch of this broader theme. With it the controversies pertaining to socialism are intimately connected.

The disciples of _Adam Smith_ have contended for the non-intervention of governments in the industrial pursuits of the people. They are to be left to the natural desire of wealth, and the natural exercise of competition in the pursuit of it. The prevalent theories of _socialism_ are directly hostile to this--called the _laissez-faire_--principle. Socialists would make government the all-regulative agent, the owner of land and of the implements of labor.

ENGLISH ESSAYISTS.--In literature the later time has seen an extraordinary multiplying of periodicals and newspapers, among whose editors and contributors have been included numerous writers of much celebrity. In Great Britain, several famous authors first acquired distinction mainly by historical and critical articles in reviews. This is true of _Thomas Babington Macaulay_ and _Thomas Carlyle_. Each of them became a historian. _Macaulay_, an ardent Whig, with an astonishing familiarity with political and literary facts, wrote in a spirited and brilliant style a _History of England from the Accession of James II_. to the death of his hero, _William III. Carlyle_, with a unique force of imagination and a rugged intensity of feeling, original in his thought, yet strongly affected by German literature, especially by _Richter_ and _Goethe_, wrote in his earlier days a _Life of Schiller_. He wrote later a history of the French Revolution, in which the scenes of that tragic epoch are depicted with dramatic vividness; and a copious _History of Frederick the Great_. Among the most characteristic of his writings are his _Heroes and Hero-Worship_; the "Latter-Day Pamphlets," in which is poured out his contempt of democracy; and the _Life of John Sterling_,--the counterpart of a biography of _Sterling_, written in a different vein by a learned and scholarly divine, _Julius Hare_.

Of essayists in a lighter, discursive vein, one of the most popular, who has already been referred to (p. 544), was the Scottish writer, _John Wilson_ (1785-1854), the author of numerous tales and criticisms, and of diverting papers written under the name of "Christopher North." Without the fancy and humor of Wilson, yet master of a style keeping within the limits of prose while verging on poetry, was _Thomas De Quincey_, the author of _The Confessions of an Opium Eater, Essays on the Roman Emperors_, etc.

HISTORICAL WRITINGS IN ENGLAND.--The literature of history has been enriched by British authors with important works besides those named above. _Grote_ and _Thirlwall_ each composed histories of Greece which are the fruit of thorough and enlightened scholarship. The work of _Grote_ is a vindication of the Athenian democracy, a view the antipode of that taken in the work on Grecian history by _Mitford_. An elaborate work on the _History of the Romans under the Empire_ is one of several historical productions of _Charles Merivale. Stanhope_ [Lord _Mahon_] composed a narrative of the War of the Spanish Succession, and other useful histories. Sir _W. F. P. Napier_ wrote a _History of the War in the Peninsula_, in which the campaigns of _Wellington_ in Spain are described by an author who took part in them. The constitutional history of England has been treated with satisfactory learning and judgment by _Hallam, May,_ and _Stubbs_. The Puritan revolution has been described with masterly skill and judicial fairness by _S. R. Gardiner_. In the earlier field, Mr. _Edward A. Freeman_ labored with distinguished success, the _History of the Norman Conquest_ being his principal work in this branch of historical inquiry. _J. R. Green_ is the author of an attractive history of the English people. _J. A. Froude_ wrote with engaging literary art a _History of England in the Reign of Elizabeth_, which attempts, in the preliminary part, an apology for the character and conduct of _Henry VIII_. _Spencer Walpole_ has written a _History of England since 1815_. _Ramsay_ has written the _Foundations of England, Angevin England, Lancaster, and York_. _John Hill Burton_, a Scottish author, educated as a lawyer, composed vigorously written histories of Scotland and of the reign of Queen Anne. _Lecky_ wrote in a pleasing style a _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, besides a _History of Rationalism in Europe_, and a _History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne_. In ecclesiastical history, _Milman_, whose leading work is the _History of Latin Christianity_, Dean _Stanley_, and Bishop _Creighton_ have been the principal writers.

ENGLISH NOVELISTS.--The series of "Waverley novels" by _Walter Scott_ (1771-1832) had an unbounded popularity. Pervaded by a cheerful, healthy tone, they presented fascinating pictures of life and manners, and kindled a fresh sympathy with the Middle Ages and with the spirit of chivalry. The poems of Scott depicted, in a metrical form, like picturesque scenes, and knightly combats and adventures. The fictions of Scott gave rise to a school of writers, one of whom was _G. P. R. James_ (1801-1860). A new and different type of novel appeared, in connection with which the names of _Dickens_ (1812-1870) and _Thackeray_ (1811-1863) are preëminent. Both are humorists; in _Dickens_ especially, humor runs into broad caricature. Both present pictures of society and of common life. They illustrate the tendency of the novel at present to rely for its attraction upon scenes and incidents of ordinary life, and the minute portraiture of manners and of character. _Dickens_ owes his popularity largely to the unique sort of drollery and the genuine pathos that are mingled in his pages. _Thackeray_ is a satirist, with a keen eye to detect the weaknesses of humanity, but with a deep well of sympathy, veiled, however, and sedulously guarded from sentimentalism, by a tone of banter and a semblance of cynicism. Measured by their popularity with the cultivated class, the novels of Mrs. _Lewes_ (_George Eliot_) stand next in rank to the productions last referred to. In some of her tales, the artistic motive and spirit are qualified by the didactic aim, or the underlying "tendency,"--the purpose to teach, or to promote a favorite cause,--which has become a frequent characteristic in modern fiction. Among the other English novelists, _Bulwer_ (1805-1873), whose later stories are free from the immorality that stains the earlier, is one of the most widely read. The novels of _Charles Kingsley_ (1819-1875) are among the justly popular productions in this department. Among the novelists of the late Victorian Era were _Charles Keade_, _Blackmore_, _Stevenson_, _Kipling_, _Meredith_, _Hardy_, and Mrs. _Humphry Ward_.

ENGLISH POETS.--_Alfred Tennyson_ (1809-1892), the author of _The Princess_, _In Memoriam_, and the _Idylls of the King_, held the first place among the poets of his day. An adept in the metrical art, he combines in these mature productions, with terseness of diction and fresh, striking imagery, deep reflection and sympathy with the intellectual questionings and yearnings of the time. In his lyrical poems the fullness of his power is seen. He was, without question, a consummate literary artist. _Browning_ (1812-1889), careless of rhythmical art, with a defiance of form, but with dramatic power, in his descent to "the under-currents" of the soul, placed himself open to the reproach of obscurity. Among English poets of high merit in the recent period stand the names of the delightful humorist _Thomas Hood_ (1798-1845), _Arthur Clough_ (1819-1861), and more recently, _Matthew Arnold_ (1822-1888).

With this reference to the poets may be coupled the name of the most eloquent and suggestive of the English writers on art, _John Ruskin_.

THEOLOGY IN ENGLAND.--Theological scholarship in Great Britain, after a long season of partial eclipse, again shone forth in the present period. Critical works relating to the Scriptures have been produced, which are on a level with the best Continental learning. About 1833, there began at Oxford what has been called the "Tractarian movement," from a series of "Tracts for the Times," relating to theology and the Church, which were issued by its promoters. The party thus originating were called "Puseyites," as Dr. _Edward Pusey_ (1800-1882), the author of learned commentaries, and of works in other departments of divinity, was their acknowledged leader. They formed one branch of the class called "High Churchmen." They laid great emphasis on the doctrine of the "apostolic succession" of the ministry, the necessity and efficacy of the sacraments administered by them, and the importance of visible ecclesiastical unity. They claimed to stand in the "middle path" between the Church of England and the Church of Rome. One of the leading associates of _Pusey_ was _John Keble_ (1792-1866), the poet, author of _The Christian Year_. The most eminent writer in this group of theologians was _John Henry Newman_ (1801-1890), who won general admiration by the subtlety of his genius and its rare felicity of expression. He entered the Church of Rome, and was advanced to the rank of a cardinal. One of the principal literary undertakings of the recent period is the Revision of the Authorized Version of the Bible, by associated companies of English and American scholars. In the long catalogue of influential writers in theology, it is practicable to refer here to a few suggestive names. _Thomas Chalmers_ (1780-1847) was equally noted as a glowing preacher, an eloquent defender of the Christian faith, and a lucid expounder of the Calvinistic system. _Edward Irving_ (1792-1834) was a pulpit orator of unsurpassed eloquence in his day, whose peculiar view as to the restoration of the miraculous gifts of the Spirit, that were granted in the apostolic age, gave rise to a religious body calling itself the "Catholic Apostolic Church." _Frederick Denison Maurice_ (1805-1872) was one of the leaders of the "liberal," or "Broad Church," portion of the English Episcopal Church. His writings have exerted a strong influence. In the same general direction, but of a more critical and argumentative tone, were _Richard Whately_ (1787-1863), Archbishop of Dublin; and _Thomas Arnold_, who, in addition to his influence as a teacher, classical scholar, and historian, engaged actively in discussions on the questions relating to Church and State.

LITERATURE IN AMERICA: POEMS AND TALES.--The period which we are now considering witnessed a gratifying development of belles-lettres and historical literature in the United States. At the outset, two writers appeared who acquired a transatlantic fame. _Washington Irving_ (1783-1859) in 1818 published _The Sketch Book_, in a series of pamphlets. It had been preceded by _Knickerbocker's History of New York_ and other humorous publications. Among his later writings were included the _Life of Columbus_, the _Life of Mohammed_, and the _Life of Washington_. The refinement and charm of his style, which brought back the simplicity of Goldsmith, satisfied the foreign critics who had ridiculed the florid rhetoric of previous American authors. _James Fenimore Cooper_ (1789-1851) published _The Spy_, the first of his novels, which attracted much attention, in 1821. This was followed, two years later, by _The Pioneers_, the first of the famous "Leatherstocking" series of novels, in which Indian life and manners were portrayed. Cooper was also the founder of the "sea-novel," a line of fiction in which he was followed by an English writer, _Marryat_ (1792-1848). _Richard H. Dana_ and _Fitz-Greene Halleck_ were poets who had a much higher than the merely negative merit of freedom from tumidity, the bane of the earlier American bards. Not only in verse, but also in his prose tales, _Dana_ manifested genius. Several later poets, acknowledged at home and abroad, well deserve the name. Such are _Bryant_ (1794-1878), whose poems, pensive and elevated in their tone, lack neither vigor nor finish; _Longfellow_ (1807-1882), a poet of exquisite culture, whose purity of sentiment, as well as polish and melody of diction, have made him a favorite in both Europe and America; _Whittier_ (1807-1892), whose spirited productions are pervaded with a glowing love of liberty and humanity. _Lowell_ (1819-1891) has justly earned fame as a poet and a critic; and, as a poet, in both serious and humorous compositions. The "Biglow Papers" are without a rival in the species of humor that characterize them. Distinction as a poet and a prose writer belongs likewise to _Oliver Wendell Holmes_ (1809-1894), who was especially successful as an author of "poems of society." _Edgar Allan Poe_ (1809-1849), faulty in his moral spirit as he was wayward in his conduct, exhibited, both in his poems and tales, which are unique in their character, the traits of a wild and somber genius. _Ralph Waldo Emerson_ (1803-1882), admired as a poet, but more generally as an essayist, valuing insight above logic, has commented on nature, man, and literature with so rare a penetration and felicity of expression that _Matthew Arnold_ has placed his productions on a level with the Meditations of the Emperor _Marcus Aurelius_. In the list of American novelists the foremost name is that of _Nathaniel Hawthorne_. In his romances the subtle analysis of the workings of conscience and sensibility, in particular the obscure--including the morbid-action of these powers, is combined with perfection of style and of literary art. The novels of _Harriet Beecher Stowe_, especially those which relate to slavery and depict negro character, have had a world-wide currency. Among other novelists were _Paulding_ and _Sedgwick_, and more recently, _Howells, James, Bret Harte, Cable_, and _Aldrich_. The most distinguished humorist has been _S. M. Clemens_ (Mark Twain).

Good work has been done by Americans in literary history and criticism. The _History of Spanish Literature_, by _George Ticknor_, is the fruit of many years of labor by a competent scholar.

HISTORICAL WRITINGS IN AMERICA.--Creditable works have been produced in America in the department of historical literature. The lives of Washington and Franklin, and other biographical and historical writings of much value, have been composed or edited by _Jared Sparks. George Bancroft_ (1800-1891) published, in successive editions, the results of extensive researches in the history of the United States. Works on the same subject have been published by _Richard Hildreth_ and many others. _John G. Palfrey_ is the author of an excellent history of New England. _William H. Prescott_ by his _History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella_, his histories of Spanish conquest in America, and his fragment on the reign of Philip II. of Spain, has deservedly attained to a high distinction on both sides of the Atlantic. The same may be said of _John Lothrop Motley_ (1814-1877), in his _Rise and Progress of the Dutch Republic_. The history of French colonization and of the contests of France in America has been detailed with thoroughness and skill by _Francis Parkman_. Other prominent writers have been _John Fiske, Justin Winsor, Henry. Adams, James F. Rhodes_, and _A. T. Mahan_.

AMERICAN WRITERS ON LAW ANS POLITICS.--American writers on law embrace names of world-wide celebrity. Among them are _Henry Wheaton_, in international law, a science to which _Woolsey_ and _Lawrence_ have made valuable contributions; _James Kent_, whose _Commentaries on American Law_ is a work held in high honor by the legal profession; and _Joseph Story_, a jurist and legal writer of distinguished merit. The speeches and other productions of _Webster, Calhoun, Clay, John Quincy Adams, Edward Everett, Seward, Sumner_, form a valuable body of political writings. The works of _Francis Lieber_, a German by birth, and the treatise on _Political Science_ by _Theodore D. Woolsey_, are important contributions to the branch of knowledge to which they relate.

PHILOLOGY IN AMERICA.--On the catalogue of students of language, the name of _Noah Webster_ (1758-1843) is prominent, through his English Dictionary, the fruit of many years of arduous labor; a work that since his death has appeared in successive and improved editions. Another successful laborer in the same field was _Joseph E. Worcester_ (1784-1865), likewise the author of a copious and valuable lexicon of the English language. _George P. Marsh_, an erudite Scandinavian scholar, wrote also on the _Origin and History of the English Language_. In the departments of classical learning, of Oriental study, and of general philology, there have appeared other American authors of acknowledged merit, e.g. _William D. Whitney_.

THEOLOGY IN AMERICA.--Theology has been cultivated with much fruit by a large number of preachers and authors, of different religious bodies. _Moses Stuart_, by his commentaries on Biblical books, and _Edward Robinson_, especially through his published Travels in the Holy Land, were widely known. _Charles Hodge_, long a professor at Princeton; _Nathaniel W. Taylor_, who broached modifications of the Calvinistic system; _Henry B. Smith_, an acute and learned theologian; and _Horace Bushnell_,--are among the influential authors on the Protestant side. To these should be added the name of _William Ellery Channing_, the most prominent leader of the Unitarians, equally distinguished as a preacher and as a philanthropist.

The Unitarian movement in New England, which began in the early part of the nineteenth century, included other theological writers, one of the most learned and scholarly of whom was _Andrews Norton_ (1786-1853). _Theodore Parker_ (1810-1860) subsequently went so far in his divergence from received views as to reject miracle and supernatural revelation altogether. He was one of the most vigorous combatants in the warfare carried on through the press and in the pulpit against slavery. Out of the Unitarian school there came a class of cultured writers in literature and criticism, of whom _George Ripley_ (1802-1880) was a representative. The "transcendentalists," as they were popularly styled, with whom these were often at the outset affiliated, were much influenced by contemporary French and German authors and speculations. Emerson, was the most prominent writer in this vaguely defined class. A periodical called "The Dial" was issued by them.

One of the most ingenious and active-minded thinkers in the Roman Catholic Church was _Orestes A. Brownson_, a prolific author on topics of religion and philosophy.

LITERATURE IN GERMANY.--The German mind has been so productive in almost all branches of literary effort, that the annual issues of the German press have numbered many thousands. The political condition of Germany until a recent date was such as to attract large numbers to the pursuits of literature and science. It is possible to allude to but few of the principal authors. In imaginative literature, _Heinrich Heine_ (1799-1856), of Jewish extraction, was a most witty yet irreverent satirist, and one of the principal song-writers of modern times. _Gustav Freytag_ has written some of the best of the later German novels. _Auerbach_, _Keller_, and _Spielhagen_ stand very high on the roll of novelists. Of numerous recent poets, _Lenau_ and _Freiligrath_ are among the few best esteemed. In the long catalogue of German historical writers, to whom the world owes a debt, are found the names of _Schlosser_ (1776-1861), _Heeren_ (1760-1842), _Raumer_ (1781-1873); _Ranke_, whose numerous works are based on original researches, and are written with masterly skill; _Gervinus_, a critic as well as historian; _Von Sybel_, _Droysen_, _Duncker_, _Weber_, _Giesebrecht_, _Mommsen_, _Curtius_, _Treitschke_. A powerful impulse was given to the study of history by _Niebuhr_ (1776-1831). German researches have been carried into every region of the past. In Egyptology, _Lipsius_, _Bunsen_, _Brugsch_, and _Ebers_ are leading authorities. _Neander_, _Gieseler_, _Baur_, _Döllinger_, _Hefele_, _Alzog_, _Harnack_, _Janssen_, and _Pastor_ are writers on ecclesiastical history. German travelers have explored many of the countries of the globe. _Schliemann_ has uncovered the ruins of Troy. In mathematics and the natural sciences, in philology and criticism, in philosophy, in law and the political sciences, and in the different branches of theology, the world acknowledges its debt to the patient, methodical investigations and the exhaustive discussions of German students during the nineteenth century.

THEOLOGY IN GERMANY.--The history of religious thought in Germany includes the successive phases of _rationalism_, or that general theory which makes the human understanding, apart from supernatural revelation, the chief or the exclusive source of religious knowledge, and the umpire in controversies. In the age of _Frederick II._, the Anglo-French deism was widely diffused (p. 493). _Lessing_; the genial poet and critic (1729-1781), allied himself to no party. In his work on _The Education of the Human Race_, he set forth the view that the Scriptures have a high providential purpose as an instrument for the religious training of mankind, but that their _essential_ contents are ultimately verified by reason on grounds of its own; so that the prop of authority eventually becomes needless, and falls away. Not radically different was the position of _Kant_ (p. 545), who gave rise to a school of theologians that for a time flourished. This school made the essential thing in Christianity to be its morality. With _Semler_ (1721-1791), the rationalistic _Biblical criticism_ took its rise. From that day, a host of scholars have engaged in the investigation of the origin and interpretation of the Bible, and of the early history of Christianity. A middle position between the established orthodoxy and the Kantian rationalism was taken by _Frederick Schleiermacher_ (1768-1834), a man of genius, alike eminent as a critic, philosopher, and theologian. He placed the foundation of religion in the feeling of absolute dependence. In laying stress on _feeling_ as at the root of piety, he had been preceded by the philosopher _Jacobi_. From the impulse given by _Schleiermacher_, there sprung up an intermediate school of theologians, many of whom departed less than he from the traditional Protestant creed. This they professed to undertake to revise in accordance with the results of the scientific study of the Bible and of history. In their number belong _Neander_, _Nitzsch_, _Twesten_, _Tholuck_, _J. Müller_, _Dorner_, _Rothe_, _Bleek_, _Ullman_, and many other influential authors and teachers. In the department of Biblical criticism, _Ewald_, _Tischendorf_, _Meyer_, _Weiss_, are among the names of German theological scholars which are familiar to Biblical students in all countries. The critical works of _De Wette_ (1780-1849) were extensively studied. The philosophy of _Hegel_connected itself with a new form of rationalism, which found expression in the _Life of Jesus_, by _Strauss_, published in 1835, in which the Gospel miracles were treated as myths; and in the writings of _Ferdinand Christian Baur_, in connection with his followers of the "Tubingen School," who attempted to resolve primitive Christianity into a natural growth out of preëxisting conditions, and held that the historical books of the New Testament were the product of different theological "tendencies" and parties in the apostolic and the subsequent age. The Roman Catholic system has not lacked in Germany able defenders, one of the most noted of whom was _Möhler_, the author of _Symbolism_ (_Symbolik_), an ingenious polemical work in opposition to Protestantism.

PHILOLOGY AND LAW IN GERMANY.--Classical philology was founded as a science by _Heyne_ (1729-1812) and _Wolf_ (1759-1824). Their work was carried forward by _G. Hermann_ (1772-1848), _Buttmann_ (1764-1829), _Jacobs_ (1764-1847), _K. O. Muller_ (1797-1840), and by numerous contemporaries and successors of these. By this succession of scholars, not only have the tongues of Greece and Rome been accurately learned and taught, but classical antiquity has been thoroughly explored. Comparative philology, under the hands of _Bopp_ (1791-1867), of _Lassen_ (1800-1876), a Norwegian by birth, of _W. von Humboldt_ (1767-1835), of _Pott_ (born in 1802), of _Schleicher_ (1821-1868), and their coadjutors, has grown to be a fruitful science. In the study of the German language and early literature, _J. Grimm_ (1785-1863), _W. Grimm_ (1786-1859), _Lachmann_ (1793-1851), _Simrock_ (1802-1878), have been among the pioneers. The study of law, especially of Roman law, was placed on a new foundation by the labors of _Savigny_ (1779-1861), while a like thoroughness was brought to the exposition of German law by _Mittermaier_ and others. In political science, _Mohl_ (1779-1875), _Bluntschli_ (1808-1881), _Stahl_ (1802-1861), and _Gneist_ (1816-1895) gained a worldwide celebrity.

LITERATURE IN FRANCE.--A class of vigorous young writers in France broke loose from the restraints of the "classical" school and its patterns, and composed dramas in the more free method of the "romantic" school. They drew their ideas of the drama from _Shakspeare_, rather than from _Corneille_. Among these writers were _Alexandre Dumas_, a most prolific novelist as well as writer of plays; and the celebrated poet and dramatist, _Victor Hugo_. The romances of _Dumas_ comprise more than a hundred volumes. In his historical novels, incidents and characters without number crowd upon the scene, but without confusion, while the narrative maintains an unfailing vivacity. Of the authors of light and witty comedies, _Scribe_ is one of the most fertile. _George Sand_ (Mme. _Dudevant_) is one of the principal novel-writers of the age. _Eugene Sue_ and _Balzac_ are both popular authors in this department. The leading poets are the song-writer _Béranger_, _Lamartine_, _Victor Hugo_, and _Alfred de Musset_. With the close of the first half-century romanticism began to give way before realism, from which, however, there was a reaction before the century closed. Among the greater poets are _Sully-Prudhomme_ and _Coppée_; among the novelists, _Daudet_, _Zola_, _Maupassant_, and _Bourget_. In history some writers, as _Villemain_, are remarkable for their power of descriptive narrative; others, like _Guizot_, for their breadth of philosophical reflection, superadded to deep researches. Some, like _Augustin Thierry_, in his work on the Middle Ages, combined both elements. His brother, _Amédée Thierry_, depicted the state of society in Gaul and other countries in the period of the fall of the Roman Empire. _Barante_ composed an interesting history of the Dukes of Burgundy. Among those, besides Guizot, who treated of the history of France, _Sismondi_, the spirited _Michelet_, and the thorough and dispassionate _Henri Martin_ are specially eminent. _Thiers_, _Mignet_, _Louis Blanc_, _Taine_, and _Lanfrey_ wrote on the Revolution or Napoleon. The most eminent of the newer school of scientific historians are _Boissier_, _Sorel_, _Lavisse_, _Luchaire_, and _Aulard_. In political economy and the science of politics, _Chevalier_, _De Tocqueville_ (the author of _Democracy in America_), and _Bastiat_ are among the writers widely read beyond the limits of France. _Sainte-Beuve_ is only one of the foremost in the class of literary critics, in which are included _Renan_, _Sarcey_, _Brunetière_, _Lemaître_, _Faguet_, and others, themselves authors. The clearness of exposition which goes far to justify the claim of the French to be the interpreters of European science to the world, appears in numerous treatises in mathematics and physics. The qualities of lucid arrangement, transparency of style, and terseness of language have extended, however, to other branches of authorship; so that the French have presented a fair claim to precedence in the literary art.

SWEDEN AND RUSSIA.--There are Swedish authors who are well known in other countries. Such are the historian _Geijer_ (1783-1847); and the novelist _Fredrika Bremer_, who wrote "The Neighbors," and other tales. The most famous of the Russian novelists is _Ivan Turgenejff_, some of whose stories contain admirable pictures of Russian life.

ARCHITECTURE.--The nineteenth century witnessed in Germany, France, and England a revival of the ancient or classic styles of architecture. This appears, for example, in edifices at _Munich_, and in such buildings as _St. George's Hall_ at Liverpool. But a reaction arose against this tendency, and in behalf of the Gothic style, which is exemplified in the new _Houses of Parliament_ in London. Many Gothic churches have been erected in Great Britain. Many-storied office buildings are characteristic of America.

SCULPTURE AND PAINTING.--One of the most original of modern sculptors was _Schwanthaler_ (1802-1848), who carved the pediments of the Walhalla at Munich, and the bronze statue of Bavaria. French sculptors at the present day are fully on a level with the recent sculptors of Italy. _Chantrey_ (1788-1841) and _John Gibson_ (1791-1866), a pupil of _Canova_ and himself an original mind, are high on the roll of English sculptors. A genius for sculpture appeared among Americans, and to the names of _Powers and Crawford_, of _Story, Brown, and Ward_, the names of other meritorious artists in this province might justly be added. The German national school of painting had _Overbeck_ for its most eminent founder. _Cornelius_ (1783-1867) revived the art of fresco-painting, and established the Munich school. _Von Kaulbach_, who painted the "Battle of the Huns" in the Berlin Museum, was one of his pupils. _W. von Schadow_ is the founder of the Düsseldorf school. One of his eminent pupils was _K. F. Lessing_. Still more recent are _Ad. Menzel, Liberman, and Lenbach_. In Great Britain, _Constable_ (1796-1837) painted English landscapes full of thought and feeling, and gave a fresh impulse to this branch of art. _Stanfleld_ (1788-1864) was a master of the realistic school, which aims at a simple and faithful representation of the landscape to be depicted. _Wilkie_, a Scotchman (1785-1841), was chief among the _genre_ painters, of whom _Leslie_ (1794-1859), by birth an American, was one of the most forcible and refined. _Eastlake_ (1793-1865) was a writer on art, as well as a painter. _Landseer_ (1802-1873) was unrivaled as an animal painter. _William Hunt_ (1790-1864) had decided skill as a painter in water-colors. The _pre-Raphaelite school_, professing to go back of _Raphael_ to nature, included _Turner, Hunt, Millais_, _and Burne-Jones_. Other prominent artists have been _Herkomer, Leighton_, and _Alma-Tadema_. In France, _Paul Delaroche_ (1797-1856) followed in the path of _Horace Vernet_ (1789-1863), as a painter of battle-pieces and other modern historical scenes. _Ary Scheffer_ (1795-1858), a Dutchman by birth, painted in a graceful and pathetic tone "Christ the Consoler," and other sacred subjects. The more recent French school, comprising _Delacroix, Meissonier, Gérome, Cabanel, Millet, Rosa Bonheur_, an artist of masculine vigor, the famous painter of animal pictures,--is distinguished for technical skill and finish, but also for a bold and peculiar method of treatment. Among the leading landscape-painters of this school, _Corot, Daubigny, Rousseau, Diaz_, are conspicuous. Still more recent are _Bastien-Lepage, Chavannes, Bréton, Bouguereau, Dagnan-Bouveret, Lhermitte, Jean-Paul Laurens_, and _Dupré_.

About the year 1825 an American school of landscape-painters was founded by _Thomas Cole_, many of whose pictures were allegorical. _Durand_ is one of those who excelled in landscape painting. In other provinces of the art, _Peale_, _Weir_, _Huntington_, _Page_, _Morse_, _Chase_, _Whistler_, _Sargent_, _Abbey_; in landscape, _Gifford_, _Kensett_, _Church_, _Bierstadt_, _McEntee_, _Inness_, _Winslow Homer_, well represent what is best and most characteristic in the later productions of American painters.

MUSIC.--In music, Germany in the nineteenth century held the palm. _Schubert_, _Spohr_, _Weber_, _Meyerbeer_, and _Wagner_ are names of world-wide celebrity, while in the works of _Mendelssohn_ (1809-1849) and _Schumann_ (1810-1856) the art of music reached its climax. _Chopin_ (1810-1849), the founder of a new style of piano-forte music, was born in Poland: his father, however, was French.

PHILANTHROPIC REFORM.

In a survey of the course of recent history, notice should be taken of the increased activity of a humane spirit in the several nations.

1. SOCIAL SCIENCE.--The investigation of social evils and of their proper remedies, and of the laws which govern man in his social relations, has received of late the name of _social science_. In 1857 a meeting in _London_, over which Lord _Brougham_ presided, resulted in the organization of a society of persons interested in different forms of social improvement, bearing the name of the _National Association for the Promotion of Social Science_. Its work embraced the consideration of these five subjects: law-amendment,--to promote which a society had existed, of which Lord _Brougham_ was the head; education; prevention and repression of crime; public health; and social economy. Branches were established in various towns in England. Similar societies have flourished in the United States. An international society of the same character held its first meeting in _Brussels_ in 1862. The wide range of special topics which these societies consider may give an appearance of indefiniteness to their aims. The movement at least indicates that social advancement has assumed the form of a distinct and comprehensive problem, and is drawing to itself the deliberate attention of thoughtful persons of diverse nations and creeds.

2. MITIGATION OF THE SUFFERINGS OF WAR: HOSPITALS.--If wars are still frequent and destructive, much more has been done of late to mitigate the sufferings consequent upon armed conflicts. The right of an invading force to ravage the territory of an enemy was seldom practically asserted in the nineteenth century. Non-combatants, according to the modern rules of war, are not to be molested. Their property, if it is taken, is to be paid for at its fair value. The doctrine that requisitions may be made by a commander is not yet abandoned. It was acted on by _Napoleon_ on a large scale. It was not approved by _Wellington_. There is a growing opinion against it. It is not now held to be a crime for an officer to hold a fortress as long as he can. In the care of the sick and the wounded, there has been a great change for the better. The _ambulance_ system, or the system of movable hospitals accompanying armies on the field, was established by the French, with the approval of _Napoleon_, in 1795. The name _ambulance_ is also frequently given to the vehicles for transporting the wounded and sick. The whole ambulance system was completely organized in the American civil war, and defined by an Act of Congress in 1864. To a French surgeon is due, also, the establishment of a corps of _stretcher-bearers_. By the European Convention adopted at _Geneva_ (1864), the wounded, and the whole official staff connected with ambulances, are exempted from capture as prisoners of war. For the more efficient organization of hospitals, a great service was rendered by the example of _Florence Nightingale_, an English lady, who, at the head of a company of volunteer nurses, during the Crimean war created a great establishment of this sort at Scutari (1854). The increased pains-taking in the method of building, in the ventilation and general management of hospitals, during the last half-century, has gone far towards freeing them from the dangers and evils to which they were formerly subject.

SANITARY SCIENCE.--Sanitary science, and the engineering connected with it, belong to the nineteenth century, and mainly to the second half of it. Systems of drainage have been devised which involve much mechanical skill, not to dwell on their usefulness in promoting health. Prior to 1815, in England, the law forbade the discharge of sewage in water-drains. The law of 1847 required that which up to 1815 was prohibited. The great change on this whole subject dates from the cholera of 1832, which awoke public attention to the sources of disease. The condition of the poor, and the discussions relating to it, lent a new stimulus to the inquiry. A series of English reports, from 1842 to 1848, had a great influence in producing a sanitary reform, in the particulars referred to, in England and in other countries.

3. PUBLIC EDUCATION.--During the nineteenth century, systems of general education were established in different countries. In a part of the United States, an effective common-school system has always existed. In Germany also, especially in Prussia, there have long been thorough provisions for the instruction of all the young in elementary branches. In France, in consequence of the laws requiring primary schools in all the communes of any considerable size, the average of illiteracy has of late steadily diminished. In 1881, in France, instruction in the public primary schools was made absolutely free. England has witnessed a very great change in the legal establishment of means of instruction in the rudiments of knowledge for the whole people. The Education Act of 1876 required that every child between the ages of five and fourteen should receive such teaching. In England, and in some other countries, the employment of children who have not had a certain amount of school instruction was prohibited by law. In the new kingdom of Italy, every commune having four thousand inhabitants was required by law (1859) to maintain a primary school. By subsequent legislation, the compulsory principle was adopted as far as the circumstances of the country would allow. The result has been a most remarkable diminution in the numbers of the wholly illiterate class. Other European states have made primary education compulsory. For instance, in Hungary, attendance at school was made obligatory for children from the beginning of the eighth to the end of the twelfth year. Such measures in behalf of general education as governments have adopted in recent times are founded, to be sure, partly on the conscious need of self-protection against ignorance and its baleful consequences to the state. A more directly humane impulse, however, mingles with this motive. The operation of benevolent feeling is seen in the multiplying of special schools for the benefit of the blind, of the deaf and dumb, and even of imbeciles.

4. REFORM OF CRIMINAL LAW.--The advance of humane sentiment has produced a reform of criminal law. In England, in the closing part of the eighteenth century, there were two hundred and twenty-three offenses that were punished with death. To injure Westminster Bridge, to cut down young trees, to shoot at rabbits, to steal property of the value of five shillings, were capital offenses. Vigorous and persevering opposition was made to the mitigation of this bloody code. Sir _Samuel Romilly_ (1757-1818) began his effort at reform by endeavoring to secure the repeal of these cruel laws, one by one. His bills, when carried with difficulty through the Commons, were repeatedly thrown out by the House of Lords. One of the most strenuous opponents of the change was the Lord Chancellor, _Eldon_. Lord _Ellenborough_, the chief justice, stigmatized the proposed alteration of the statutes as the fruit of "speculation and modern philosophy." It was predicted that, if it were made, there would be a terrible increase of crime. Sir _James Mackintosh_ continued with success the effort of Romilly. In 1837 the list of capital offenses had been reduced to seven. One consequence was the striking diminution of crime. Another reform in England was that of the police-system (1816). The officers of the police had encouraged crime in order to secure the reward of forty pounds offered by the government on conviction, in the case of crimes of a certain grade.

5. PRISON-DISCIPLINE REFORM.--One of the distinctions of modern philanthropy is the prison-discipline reform. When _Howard_ began his labors (1773), the prisons in England were generally dirty, pestiferous dens, crowded with inmates of both sexes,--nurseries of loathsome disease, and of still more loathsome vice. Soon after this time, a serious effort began to make prisons a means of reform, instead of schools of debauchery and crime. There was a movement for the erection of penitentiaries of improved construction. This was aided by the exertions of _Jeremy Bentham_. The most successful efforts in behalf of a better system of management in prisons were made by members of the Society of Friends. Of these, the most useful person in this cause was Mrs. _Elizabeth Gurney Fry_ (1780-1845), a woman of rare powers of mind and of the noblest Christian character. By her personal influence, she wrought such a transformation of character and behavior among the female convicts in Newgate Prison as it had been deemed impossible to effect. The reforms which Mrs. _Fry_ effected spread to other places. Her labors were not confined to Great Britain. She visited France (1838), Belgium, Holland, and other countries. Her correspondence in the interest of the cause which she served extended to Russia and Italy. Her recommendations bore fruit for good in almost all parts of Europe. Signal improvements in plans of construction, and in the interior life of prisons, have been effected under the auspices of the Prison Discipline Society in England. In these changes, the example of changes and reforms in this matter in the United States has had a marked influence. The two great ends kept in view at present in the arrangements and occupations of prisons are the reform of the criminal, and the deterring of others from the commission of crime. Distinct establishments for the detention, reform, and training of juvenile offenders, who were formerly corrupted by association with criminals mature in vice, are peculiar to recent times. The transportation of English convicts to Australia began in 1787. As these multiplied, there sprang up cruelty on the part of supervisors in the colonies; and in the penal settlements where the worst offenders were guarded, there were found the most corrupt and degraded herds of criminals. The opposition in the colonial communities to transportation found support in England. In 1840 deportation to New South Wales ceased. At length Van Dieman's Land also refused to receive this forced emigration even of released convicts. The British Government was obliged to rely on other methods of punishment, especially on the graduation of the term of confinement according to the conduct of the criminal.

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE UNITY OF MANKIND.

UNITY AMID DIVERSITY.--The path of human progress has led in the direction of _unity_ as the ultimate goal. It is, however, a _unity in variety_ toward which the course of history has moved. The development and growth of distinct nations, each after its own type, and, not less, the freedom of the individual to realize the destiny intended for him by nature, are necessary to the full development of mankind,--necessary to the perfection of the race. The final unity that is sought is to be reached, not by stifling the capacities of human nature, but by the complete unfolding of them in all their diversity. The modern era has made an approach toward this higher unity that is to coexist with a rich and manifold development. An enlightened man, Prince _Albert_ of England, remarked in a public address (1850): "Nobody who has paid any attention to the peculiar features of our present era will doubt for a moment that we are living at a period of most wonderful transition, which tends rapidly to accomplish that great end to which, indeed, all history points, _the realization of the unity of mankind!_ Not a unity which breaks down the limits and levels the peculiar characteristics of the different nations of the earth, but rather a unity, _the result and product_ of those very national varieties and antagonistic qualities."

In concluding this volume, it is proper to advert to some of the signs and means of this unification of mankind, which belong to the recent era.

1. INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.--The words quoted above from Prince _Albert_ were spoken in anticipation of the Great International Exhibition in London, in 1854. The industrial exhibitions, in which the products of many nations are collected, and to which visitors are drawn from different parts of the earth, are one indication of the effect of manufactures and commerce in drawing mankind together. The first displays of this kind were for French manufactures alone, and were held in Paris in 1798, and, under the consulate of Napoleon, in 1801 and 1802. The first _international_ exposition was in Paris in 1844; and it was followed by the "World's Fair" in London (1850), for which the vast edifice called "the Crystal Palace," made of iron and of glass, was constructed. Similar exhibitions were held in New York (1853), in Paris in 1855 and again in 1867, in Constantinople, Amsterdam, Vienna, (1873), in Philadelphia on the hundredth anniversary of American independence (1876), in Chicago in 1893, and in Paris in 1900. In these fairs, the products of the industry of the far East were shown by the side of the products of European and American manufacture.

2. ECONOMICAL ENLIGHTENMENT.--In connection with the wide extension of commerce, the better methods and ideas which have come into vogue in respect to commercial relations deserve notice. The _system of credit_, facilitating trade and forming a bond of confidence and of union between different nations, although it began in the Middle Ages, was not fairly established until the organization of the Bank of Amsterdam in 1609. This system, if it is "one of the most powerful engines of warfare," is likewise "one of the great pledges of peace." The stimulus given to manufactures by mechanical inventions has been an effective promoter of commercial intercourse. The teaching of _Adam Smith_, and of the political economists since his time, by which it is seen that the gain of one nation is not the loss of another, and that nations are mutually benefited by the interchange of the products of their labor, which is the true source of wealth, has operated as an antidote to discord. The ruin of a neighbor, or non-intercourse with him, has been discovered to be as contrary to the demands of a prudent self-interest as of a disinterested benevolence.

3. COMMUNITY IN SCIENCE AND LETTERS.--The community of literature and science has been growing more cosmopolitan. The barriers created by differences of language are overcome. The custom of learning foreign languages has become more diffused. The most important writings, in whatever country they appear, circulate through translations in all other civilized lands. All well-stored libraries are polyglot.

4. WIDENED POLITICAL SYSTEM.--In the political relations of countries, it is found necessary to comprehend all parts of the globe in the political system, in the right adjustment of which each country has a stake, and over which stretches an acknowledged code of international law. The establishment of an international tribunal of arbitration at The Hague is a long step toward making such a code effective and toward preventing war.

5. INTERNATION PHILANTHROPY.--The growth of humane feeling, of the interest felt in man as man, engendered a spirit of universal philanthropy. For example, the hostility to the slave-trade led to the treatment of it as piracy by the municipal laws and by the treaties of several nations, while it is prohibited and punished by nearly all of the countries of Europe. This is the direct result of a heightened respect for man and for the rights of human nature, however poor or degraded man may be. Instances have occurred in which help has been generously given to sufferers by fire or famine, by strangers in remote lands. A famine in Persia called out liberal contributions from America. Examples of the exercise of justice and kindness toward distant nations may remind the reader of opposite examples of wrong and cruelty. We are pointing out, however, only the _drift_ of sentiment; and it must be remembered that the facts which have been referred to as illustrative of the growth of philanthropy, are such as never occurred in former ages.

6. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS.--The spread of the Christian religion by missionary efforts is one of the means of unifying mankind. In ancient times and in the Middle Ages, the two great achievements of the Church were the conversion of the Roman Empire, and then of the barbarian nations by whom it was subverted. But, in the Middle Ages, there was also missionary labor, here and there among the Saracens and in the lands of the East. Since the thirteenth century, missions in the Roman Catholic Church have been chiefly prosecuted by the monastic orders. In this work, the Jesuits, from the first establishment of their order, were conspicuously active in all quarters of the globe. Of their missionaries, none have been more eminent and zealous than _Francis Xavier_ (1506?1552), who died just as he was about to undertake the conversion of China. Protestants, in the period after the Reformation, were too busy in the struggles going forward in their own lands, to undertake foreign missions on an extended scale. Yet they were not indifferent to the importance of the work. Under the protectorate of _Cromwell_, an ordinance established a Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England (1649). In 1701 the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was established in England. Later, the Moravians from the beginning evinced great interest in foreign missions, and planted missionary stations in several countries. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Congregation of the Propaganda was founded in 1622, for the general superintendence of missionary operations. Colleges for their training were established, the chief of which was the "Urban College" at Rome, where students from all nations have been educated for missionary service.

The nineteenth century was marked by an extraordinary outburst of missionary activity. In this sort of exertion the Roman Catholic body has kept up an unflagging zeal. Within the various Protestant denominations, a remarkable increase of fervor and of success in this department of Christian labor has been witnessed. In the room of _seven_ societies for this purpose at the end of the eighteenth century, there were in 1880, in Europe and America, _seventy_ organizations. At this last date, there were not less than twenty-four hundred ordained Europeans and Americans employed in this service, besides a great number of assistants, both foreign and native. The native converts numbered not less than 1,650,000. The yearly contributions for the support of the missions increased proportionately. In 1882 British contributions alone amounted to £1,090,000. It is not an exaggeration to say that the globe is now "covered with a network of Christian outposts."

The following passage, slightly abbreviated, from a German writer, presents a glowing sketch of the wide extension of recent missionary labors:--

"At the beginning of this century, the island world of the Pacific was shut against the gospel; but England and America have attacked those lands so vigorously in all directions, especially through native workers, that whole groups of islands, even the whole Malayan Polynesia, is to-day almost entirely Christianized, and in Melanesia and Micronesia the mission-field is extended every year. The gates of British East India have been thrown open wider and wider during this century; at first for English, then for all missionaries. This great kingdom, from Cape Comorin to the Punjaub and up to the Himalayas, where the gospel is knocking on the door of Thibet, has been covered with hundreds of mission-stations, closer than the mission-net which at the close of the first century surrounded the Roman empire; the largest and some of the smaller islands of the Indian Archipelago, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, and now New Guinea also, are occupied, partly on the coast and partly in the interior. Burmah, and in part Siam, is open to the gospel; and China, the most powerful and most populous of heathen lands, forced continually to open her doors wider, has been traversed by individual pioneers of the gospel, to Thibet and Burmah, and half of her provinces occupied from Hong-Kong and Canton to Peking; and in Manchuria, if by only a thin chain, yet at many of the principal points, stations have been founded, while the population overflowing into Australia and America is being labored with by Protestant missionaries. Japan also, hungry for reform, by granting entrance to the gospel has been quickly occupied by American and English missionary societies, and already, after so little labor, has scores of evangelical congregations. Indeed, the aboriginal Australians have, in some places, been reached. In the lands of Islam, from the Balkans to Bagdad, from Egypt to Persia, there have been common central evangelization stations established in the chief places, for Christians and Mohammedans, by means of theological and Christian medical missions, conducted especially by Americans. Also in the primitive seat of Christianity, Palestine, from Bethlehem to Tripoli, and to the northern boundaries of Lebanon, the land is covered by a network of Protestant schools, with here and there an evangelical church. Africa, west, south, and east, has been vigorously attacked; in the west, from Senegal to Gaboon, yes, lately even to the Congo, by Great Britain, Basel, Bremen, and America, which have stations all along the coast. South Africa at the extremity was evangelized by German, Dutch, English, Scotch, French, and Scandinavian societies. Upon both sides, as in the center, Protestant missions, although at times checked by war, are continually pressing to the north; to the left, beyond the Walfisch Bay; to the right, into Zululand, up to Delagoa Bay; in the center, to the Bechuana and Basuto lands. In the east, the sun of the gospel, after a long storm, has burst forth over Madagascar in such brightness that it can never again disappear. Along the coasts from Zanzibar and the Nile, even to Abyssinia, out-stations have been established, and powerful assaults made by the Scotch, English, and recently also by the American mission and civilization, into the very heart of the Dark Continent, even to the great central and east African lakes. In America, the immense plains of the Hudson's Bay Territory, from Canada over the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, have not only been visited by missionaries, but have been opened far and wide to the gospel through rapidly growing Indian missions. In the United States, hundreds of thousands of freedmen have been gathered into evangelical congregations; and, of the remnants of the numerous Indian tribes, some at least have been converted through the work of evangelization by various churches, and have awakened new hope for the future. In Central America and the West Indies, as far as the country is under Protestant home nations, the net of evangelical missions has been thrown from island to island, even to the mainland in Honduras, upon the Mosquito Coast; and in British and Dutch Guiana it has taken even firmer hold. Finally, the lands on and before the southern extremity of the continent, the Falkland Islands, Terra del Fuego, and Patagonia, received the first light through the South American Missionary Society (in London); and recently its messengers have pushed into the heart of the land, and are rapidly pressing on to the banks of the great Amazon, to the Indians of Brazil."

RESULTS OF MISSIONS.--In carrying forward missionary work during the nineteenth century, the Bible has been translated into numerous languages. Missionaries, as in the early days of the Church, have reduced the languages of uncultivated peoples to writing, and made the beginning of native literatures. Schools, colleges, and printing-presses follow in the path of the preachers. The contributions made to philology and to other branches of science by missionary preachers and explorers are of high value. As far as the number of converts is concerned, progress has been more rapid, as was the case in the first Christian centuries, among uncivilized tribes. The reception of Christianity is more slow in a country like China, and among the Aryan inhabitants of India. But the influence exerted by missions in such communities is not to be measured by the number of converts. Moreover, history has often shown, that, in the spread of the Christian religion, the first steps are the most slow and difficult: they are like the early operations in a siege. Sir _Bartle Frere_ writes thus: "Statistical facts can in no way convey any adequate idea of the work done in any part of India. The effect is enormous where there has not been a single avowed conversion. The teaching of Christianity amongst a hundred and sixty millions of civilized, industrious Hindoos and Mohammedans in India, is effecting changes, moral, social, and political, which for extent and rapidity in effect are far more extraordinary than any that have been witnessed in modern Europe." Of the same tenor is an opinion expressed in strong terms by Sir _Henry Lawrence_, governor-general of India during the mutiny of 1857, and a most competent judge.

It is worthy of remark, as one characteristic of the Christian missions of the recent period, that the religions of the non-Christian nations have been studied more thoroughly, and the true and praiseworthy elements in them have been better appreciated.

The progress made in the past encourages the hope that the unity of mankind, a unity which shall be the crown of individual and national development, will one day be reached. That unity of mankind, in loyal fellowship with Him in whose image man was made, is the community of which the ancient Stoic vaguely dreamed, and which the apostles of Christ proclaimed and predicted,--the perfected _kingdom of God_.

LITERATURE. See lists on pp. Alison, _Hist. of Europe_, from 1815 to 1852 (8 vols.); Bulle, _Gesch. d. neuesten Zeit_, 1815-1871 (2 vols.); Flathe. _Zeitalter der Restauration und der Revolution_; Stern, _Geschichte Europas_ (3 vols.); Debidpur, _Hist. Diplomatique de l'Europe_ (2 vols.); Seignobus, _Political History of Europe since 1814_; Sears. _Political Growth in the Nineteenth Century_; Lavisse et Rambaud. _Hist Gén._, Vols. X., XI., XII.; Phillips, _European History_, 1815-1899; Müller, _Political History of Recent Times_ (Peters's translation, 1882); Müller, _Politische Gesch. d. Gegenwart_ (an annual, since 1867); Honegger, _Grundsteine einer allgem. Culturgeschichte d. neuesten Zeit_ (5 vols.).

Works on the History of Italy. Thayer, _Dawn of Italian Independence_ (2 vols.); Reuchlin, _Geschichte Italiens_ (4 vols.); Stillman, _Union of Italy_; Probyn, _Italy from_ 1815-1878; Lives of Cavour, by De la Rive (English translation), by E. Dicey, by Mazade (French); _Life and Writings of Mazzini_ (9 vols.).

Works on the History of Germany. Treitschke, _Deutsche Geschichte_; Von Sybel, _Founding of the German Empire_ (6 vols,); Busch,_ Bismarck in the Franco-Prussian War_ (2 vols.), _Bismarck, The Man and the Statesman_ (2 vols.); Springer, _Geschichte Oesterreichs_ (2 vols.).

France. Hillebrand, _Gesch. Frankreichs_ (1830-1870); Adams, _Democracy and Monarchy in France_; Stein, _Gesch. der Sozialen Bewegung in Frankreich_; Guizot, _Memoirs of His Own Time_ (1807-1848) (4 vols.); Delord, _Hist. du Second Empire_ (6 vols.); Zevort, _Hist. de la 3'me Republique_ (4 vols.); Hanotaux, _Contemporary France_ (Vol. I.); Bodley, _France_ (2 vols.); Simon, _The Government of M. Thiers_ (from 1871-1873) (2 vols.).

Works on the History of England. Harriet Martineau, _The History of England_ (1800-1854); Walpole, _A History of England_, from 1815 (6 vols., 1878-1880); Molesworth, _The History of England_ (1830-1874); Justin McCarthy, _A History of Our Own Times_ (1878-1880); Kinglake, _The Invasion of the Crimea_ (6 vols.); Seeley, _The Expansion of England_; Rutherford, _The Fenian Conspiracy_; Richey, _The Irish Land Laws_; King, _The Irish Question_; Morley, _Life of Gladstone_, 3 vols. (1903) (an able historical review).

Works on History of the United States. Benton, _Thirty Year's View_ [1820-1850]; Johnston, _History of American Politics_; DE TOCQUEVILLE, _Democracy in America_ (2 vols.); Thorpe, _Constitutional History of the American People_ (2 vols.); Roosevelt, _Winning of the West_ (4 vols); Stanwood, _A History of the Presidency_; Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_ (2 vols).; Ostrogorski, _Democracy and the Origin of Political Parties_ (2 vols.); Henry Adams, _History of the United States_ (1800-1817, 9 vols.); Rhodes, _History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850_ (4 vols.); Wilson, _Division and Reunion_; Burgess, _The Middle Period, The Civil War and the Constitution _(2 vols.); Dunning, _Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction_; Bolles, _Financial History of the United States_ (3 vols.); Wilson, _History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power_; Blaine, _Twenty Years in Congress_; Histories of the Civil War, by the Count of Paris (2 vols.), by Roper, by J. W. Draper, by H. Greeley, by A. H. Stephens, by E. A. Pollard (_The Lost Cause_); Swinton's _Twelve Decisive Battles of the _[_Civil_] _War_; _Memoirs of Gen. W. T. Sherman,_ by himself; Grant, _Personall Memoirs_ (2 vols.); John Sherman, _Recollections_ (2 vols.); Moore, _The Rebellion Record_ (1861-1871); Biography of _Gallatin_, by H. Adams; of _Jackson_, by Parton, by W. G. Sumner; of _Madison_, by Rives; of _J. Q. Adams_, by Morse; of _Josiah Quincy_, by Edmund Quincy; of _Webster_, by G. T. Curtis, by Lodge; of _Clay_, by Schurz; of _Calhoun_, by Crallé; of _Sumner_, by E. L. Pierce; of _Lincoln_, by Nicolay and Hay, by Morse; of _Seward_, by Fr. Brancroft; of _W. L. Garrison_, by O. Johnson, by W. P. Garrison; _The American Commonwealths_, a series of histories of the separate States (edited by H. E. Scudder); writings of J. Q. Adams, Webster, Clay, Calhoun, E. Everett, C. Sumner, W. H. Seward; John Fiske, _American Political Ideas_.

Literary Biographies. _Life of Walter Scott_, by Lockhart; of Jeffrey, by Cockburn; of Macaulay, by Trevelyan; of Arnold, by Stanley; of Dickens, by Forster; of Carlyle, by Froude; of George Eliot [Mrs. Lewes], by Cross. _Life of Irving_, by P. M. Irving; of Bryant, by Parke Godwin; _Life and Letters of George Ticknor; Life of Ripley_, by Frothingham; Series of "American Men of Letters," including _Washington Irving_, by Warner; _Cooper_, by T. R. Lounsbury; _Emerson_, by O. W. Holmes, etc.

Argyll, _The Eastern Question, 1856 to 1858 and the Second Afghan War_; Taylor, _Russia before and after the War_ [of 1877] (1880); _Daily News Correspondence of the War between Russia and Turkey_ [1877-78] (2 vols.); Baker Pasha, _War in Bulgaria_ (2 vols.); Wallace, _Egypt and the Egyptian Question_; Malleson, _History of Afghanistan_; Labilliere, _Early History of the Colony of Victoria_ (2 vols.); Grant and Knollys, _The China War of 1860_; Scott, _France and Tongking_ [in 1884]; Vambéry, _Central Asia_; Stanley, _Congo and the Founding of its Free State_ (2 vols.).

Rae, _Contemporary Socialism_; Woolsey, _Communism and Socialism_; Laveleye, _Le Socialisme Contemporain_ (10th ed.); Schaeffle, _Quintessens des Socialismus_; A. Menger, _Das Recht auf den vollen Arbeitsertrag_ (2d ed.).

End of Project Gutenberg's Outline of Universal History, by George Park Fisher