Part 7

It has often been asked, What does man gain by the study of the sciences? Besides the enlarged views which they give him of his Creator's goodness and power, they at this time are fast reaching towards the demonstration of many obscure passages of His Holy Word as revealed to us in the Scriptures. The study of truth can moreover never lead one into error, and a habit of drawing correct conclusions from the facts presented is useful to every one. Geology has confirmed one great truth in Scripture, and overthrown the greatest groundwork of Deism, for it had been asserted by many that man (and indeed all other creatures) had risen to his present state by slow developments, and no proof to the contrary had ever been given. But geology has shown that at a certain era man was created, that (as is stated in Scripture) he was the last of God's works, and that neither before that time had he existed in an undeveloped form, nor since has he altered one jot from his original configuration; and the same may be said of all other creatures, whatever may be pretended to the contrary, for from the sculptures brought from the ruins of Nineveh (at least 3000 years old), there appears the same external form (fig. 35), both of man and what animals are there depicted, and his and their habits were described by the very earliest writers to be then as now. But with respect to the form of the earth's surface it is otherwise, there being a slow but continuous change. Those parts of the land exposed to the tides and action of the waves, are washed away, and the rivers are constantly bringing down soil to deposit it at their mouths, forming those tracts of land known as "deltas;" every wind that blows takes away some dust from the higher and deposits it on the lower parts of the earth's surface, so that, to use the words of the Prophet Isaiah, "every valley shall be exalted and every mountain and hill shall be made low." But this alteration is so slow that it takes hundreds of years to make but a small difference, yet a difference there undoubtedly is, and a time must come when the alteration will be such as has been shown to have taken place in far-back times and recorded in the strata in evident language, for though the changes are slow the result is inevitable. It has been ascertained that the northern part of Sweden has been steadily rising and the southern part sinking to a corresponding degree for many centuries past, and that the west coast of Italy has been elevated for ages past, at the rate of not quite an inch yearly. Volcanic actions are raising some lands and depressing others (in the earthquakes of 1822 and 1835, the whole of Chili from the Andes to the sea, and probably the bed of the sea to an unknown extent, was elevated considerably), rain and the rivers carry away land into the sea, the beds of many seas are being filled up by coral polypes and protophytes, so that the beds of these seas must ultimately be the land whilst the lower parts of the land will become sea.

After these various changes upon the surface of the earth, from a climate hot beyond anything now existing, from a surface rocky and full of fissures and inequalities, studded with islands and continents, abounding in marshes and swamps--from a state of atmosphere in which the higher animals could not live--to the present division and separation of land and water, of oceans and seas, of islands and continents, well supplied with rivers to drain off the superfluous fluid and supply highways easy to traverse in boat or canoe, the world remains, a fitting habitation for the creatures God has placed upon it on every hand. Forests to shelter the wild animals from the rains and heat of the sun; waters for those who dwell or delight in them; metals, stone, earth, and wood for man to exercise his ingenuity upon, and other innumerable things contributing to his comfort or luxury--all freely given by the hand of his Heavenly Father for his well-being and delight, that he may lack no excuse to worship and adore Him, and this delightful earth, as Milton says:--

Brought forth the tender grass, whose verdure clad Her universal face with pleasant green, Then herbs of every leaf, that sudden flower'd Opening their various colours, and made gay Her bosom smelling sweet: and these scarce blown, Forth flourish'd thick the clustering vine, forth crept The swelling gourd, up stood the corny reed Embattled in her field, and the humble shrub, And bush with frizzled hair implicit: last Rose as in dance the stately trees, and spread Their branches hung with copious fruit, or gemmed Their blossoms; with high woods the hills were crowned. With tufts the valleys, and each fountain side, With borders, long the rivers: that earth now Seem'd like to heaven, a seat where gods might dwell Or wander with delight, and love to haunt Her sacred shades.

After all these various elevations and depressions, the land remains at this present time in the form of large tracts occupying about a third of the superficial area of our globe. The largest tract is made up of Europe, Asia, and Africa, which constitute one continuous area, Africa being almost severed from the others, but still united by the Isthmus of Suez; the tract next in size to this is made up of North and South America, these again are nearly severed, but still united by the Isthmus of Panama or Darien; next come Australia and Greenland, but these, although very large, are yet not to be compared in size with the former two; there are numerous other large islands, as Borneo, New Guinea, New Zealand, Madagascar, Iceland, England, Ireland, &c., and scores of smaller ones.

The temperature of the earth (as a general rule) is greatest on the equator and diminishes gradually towards each pole, but this is by no means invariable, for two places of the same latitude may be very different in climate, and a system of lines passing round the earth from east to west, would each pass through regions of various temperatures, or what is the same thing, lines made to follow the same temperature would have to make various curves and contortions; such lines have been constructed and are called "isothermal" lines. The causes of this are to be found in the various currents of the ocean, the tides and winds, and in the proximity to the ocean of snow-clad mountains and arid plains. The variation of latitude in these lines sometimes reaches as much as seven degrees.

Europe contains about 3,900,000 square miles of surface, and is separated from Asia by the Caucasus, Caspian Sea, River Ural, and Uralian Mountains. It is about 3000 miles long and 2400 broad, about two-thirds being plain and table-land and one-third mountain land. The chief mountain ranges are those which run through Norway and Sweden in a north-westerly direction, and the mountain system along the south part from Portugal to Turkey. This last includes the Pyrenees, which runs from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean, the highest peak of which is Mont Maladeta (11,500 feet); the Alps, the highest point of which is Mont Blanc (15,748 feet); the Apennines, the highest point of which is Mont Viso (12,586 feet); the Carpathian Mountains, extending from Presburg in Hungary towards the sources of the Waag and March, the highest point being Mont Lemnitz (7962 feet); and the Balkan range, which may be considered a continuation of the Alps eastward, runs as far as the Black Sea, together with many inferior ranges and branches.

The climate of Europe embraces a range from the temperate to extreme cold. It is bounded by the Arctic Ocean on the north, Asia eastward, the Mediterranean Sea southward, and the Atlantic Ocean to the westward; it contains two great inland seas, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. There are three great volcanoes in Europe, Hecla, Vesuvius, and Etna, but the plains of Auvergne contain many which are extinct.

Asia contains the highest mountains and the most extensive table-lands in the world. It is somewhat square, being bounded northwards by the Arctic Ocean, westward by Europe, southward by the Indian Ocean, and eastward by the North Pacific, and contains about 17,500,000 square miles; the greater part is made up of two extensive tracts of elevated land called table-lands, although these are often varied by valleys and mountain chains of great extent, yet as a whole, they are from 5000 to 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. The eastern table-land is that of Thibet and the Great Desert Gobi, and the western that of Persia.

Asia contains many great mountain chains, the chief of which are the Himalaya Mountains, which run along the centre of its southern part and contain some of the highest peaks in the world; the Dhawalagiri is 28,072 feet high, but there are some others supposed to be as high.

The Altai or Gold Mountains, forming a boundary to the lowlands of Siberia, the highest peak of which is called the Katunia Pillars, and is 11,000 feet high.

The Thain-schan or Celestial Mountains, the Kuen Lun, and the Hindoo Coosh, all of which run pretty nearly east and west, while the ranges called Uralian, Bolor, Khingan, and Chinese chains run nearly north and south.

Africa is somewhat triangular, with its base towards Asia and its apex pointing southward. It is bounded northwards by the Mediterranean Sea, and at its east side by the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, while the Atlantic flows on its south-west side. In Africa is the largest desert in the world, the Great Desert of Sahara; it occupies nearly all the northern part, the southern has but few mountains of great extent, but from their elevation and the amount of waters brought down by rivers, it is supposed that the centre has very high table lands. At the north-western part is an extensive mountain system (the Atlas) covering with its branches nearly 500,000 square miles, and sending its slopes to bound the great Desert northwards.

The great tract of land comprising North and South America extends in a longitudinal direction pretty nearly north and south through 130 degrees of latitude, or nearly 8000 miles. This great tract is divided by a narrow neck of land (the Isthmus of Panama) into two pretty equal portions; the northern part is peculiar, from containing a number of lakes of immense extent, deserving well the name of inland seas, and both northern and southern divisions for the great number and extent of their water-courses. The whole of this great tract of land is traversed from end to end by an extensive chain of mountains, the longest in the world; at its southern part it forms the Andes, from which a range is continued through the Isthmus, and onwards to form the Rocky Mountains. In the southern division this immense chain passes on the west side of the land close to the sea, is of great elevation in some parts, has some of the highest mountain peaks in the world, and volcanoes also, the highest being in the Andes (Popocatapetl is about 16,000 feet high); but from the western side of the continent the land descends gradually to the eastern. In South America are some of the highest table-lands known, great elevated tracts in connection with the mountain ranges.

Australia in its interior is but little known, but the whole aspect of the island appears to be flat, and to have but little elevation, while Greenland and the great tracts of the northern regions beyond, deserve more the name of glaciers, being almost entirely a mass of barren rocks and snow.

The water-courses of these various great tracts of land are all determined by the formation of the surface, but the amount of water which is carried into the oceans by the rivers of any district is always in proportion to the amount of vegetation in that district; thus in Europe, Asia, and America, the number and extent of these correspond with the great fertility of the soil, while the northern and western part of Africa--the Great Desert--give off scarcely any of adequate extent, the Nile appearing to receive its supply from the central parts further south. The reason of it is this: wherever there is vegetation, either in the form of grassy prairies or forests, there is also a great reduction of temperature from the radiation and evaporation, and the consequent formation of rain, dew, or snow, which falling on the ground produces streams, &c.

Excepting the great tracts of land named, and islands too numerous to be mentioned, the whole surface of the earth is covered with water, the great divisions of which (called Oceans) are, the Arctic Ocean, to the north of Europe, the Atlantic, between America, Europe, and Africa, the Pacific between Asia and America, and the Indian Ocean between Africa and Australia.

The foregoing is a very bare outline of the land and water covering the surface; it may suffice, however, to call to mind the main features of the earth as it is now disposed. There can be little doubt that the great variety of climate, whether hot or cold, moist or dry, is one of the greatest sources of happiness that can be well imagined; it stimulates to research, travel, and inquiry into the works of God; every change experienced tends to make man search for further change, every new scene makes him compare it with others; and the acquirement of a knowledge of places, and a general idea of the whole world, expands his mind enables him to appreciate the good gifts he has received, and affords a source of satisfaction beyond almost any other kind of enjoyment.

THE WATERS.

How grand is the ever-moving ocean! how majestic its voice, how terrible its anger! how beautiful every colour that is reflected from its dancing spray, and how balmy the air which is wafted from its bosom to refresh the heated earth, which, under the glare of a summer's sun, seems parched with thirst. How refreshing to the senses is the change from the dry heated grass on a midsummer day--from the dusty roads--from the smoke begrimed town, smelling of dirt, and heated by the reflection of the sun's rays from bricks and stones till it becomes a furnace--from the close dark habitations of the city--from the rattle, excitement, and continual noise of vehicles and human voices--from the corroding cares and depressing influences attending the fierce "battle of life"--to the cool and gentle breeze, "the wide o'er-arching canopy of heaven," the murmur and ripple of the sea, to the clear and exhilarating air, free from soot and laden with the odour of the ocean--Oh what a desirable change! all human nature seems to own it, and hasten to the shores of the great watery world, that they may contemplate one of the greatest and grandest of God's works with admiration and thankfulness, and be re-animated by its health-giving powers.

It is a wonderful sight, and one which fills our minds with reflection; here we see many of the laws of nature exemplified on a great scale. The laws of gravity keep the surface of the ocean perfectly spherical as a whole, while those of equilibrium keep it in constant and ever-varying motion, the laws of attraction produce the tides, and those of reflection and refraction cause its surface to assume all sorts of colours and tints.

"Great art thou, Ocean, and unknown The creatures springing into life from thee, Earth's farthest shores full proudly thou dost own, The cradle of thy wave from iced to torrid zone."

The ocean is full of life, both vegetative and animal; myriads of both classes have their natural habitation in the sea, and the shore is often, after a gale, strewed with curiosities well worth the contemplation of those who devote their minds to thought. How many varieties of sea-weed have you gathered? perhaps twenty; not three of them are sea-weed at all! they are living animals, either zoophytes or molluscs, every branch of that "_flustra_" contains a thousand living beings, every spray of "_sertularia_" as many more, that other piece is the "_bugula neretina_" and also owns a colony of animals: the next is indeed a member of the vegetable kingdom, its beautiful crimson colour makes it a conspicuous object, and there are many specimens of the same plant, but of all shades of red, crimson, and purple, it is the "_plocamium coccineum_." And thus it is with every object we view, a knowledge of it brings us to respect and admire it more and more as that knowledge increases, and none more so than some of the productions of the sea. It is here we find specimens of the star-fish, the sea-urchin, and other radiata. Shells of all kinds--both living and dead--belonging to the various tribes of mollusca; crabs, shrimps, and other crustaceans, besides the endless varieties of pebbles and other specimens of worn-down rock, the effects of constant attrition.

If we turn from the shore and gaze upon the horizon, what a marvellous object it is--ever receding as we recede, ever rising as we rise, and never nearer nor farther away. This rising of the horizon, so as to be always opposite to our eyes, is because the higher we are up the more we see. On looking at the horizon we do not look on a perfect level, (if we did, being above it, of course we could not see it at all) but the depression of the line of vision is so slight as to be quite unable to be appreciated; yet, small as it is, it enables us to see a considerable space of the ocean, and the higher we rise--at the same angle--the more we see. The edge of the horizon also appears curved, being higher in front of us than on either side. This is only so in appearance, for if any one were to place a piece of string (stretched tightly between the hands) before his eyes, and bring it up till it is on a level with the horizon, he would soon see that the string and the horizon were both perfectly straight and exactly corresponding with each other.

From the horizon we turn round and look at the chalk cliffs, those white walls from which our native isle has received the name of "Albion." How were they produced? by the constant lashing of the restless waters, which are constantly wearing them away; but they are beautiful objects, full of marvels and records of bygone ages, when their tops were at the bottom of the deep seas.

The sea is a general name given to all the greater collections of water throughout the world, although, in a restricted sense, it is applied to those tracts of water of a secondary size, as the Black Sea, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean, the term "ocean" being applied to the larger tracts of water, as the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, &c. All the great oceans and seas unite, and, in reality, form one great world of waters, spread out and covering all the lower parts of the earth, the term "lake" being applied to collections of water surrounded by land, although the Caspian Sea retains the name of sea, and some of the great lakes of America may well deserve such a name.

The waters of the sea fill up all the lower parts of the earth, so that, almost without exception, the land is higher than the water, and as the land in some places rises but a few feet, and in others as many thousands, so, beneath the sea, the land sinks in many places but a few feet, and in others perhaps as many thousands as it is known to rise above it. The sea always maintains the same general level, although in past ages the land has risen and fallen, sometimes in one place and sometimes in another; indeed, the same process is taking place every day, but in so slow a manner that centuries are required to make any great alteration; while some tracts of land are being encroached on by the action of the waves, others are being added to and elevated by accumulations of mud and sand, or raised by the action of earthquakes and volcanoes, which throw up under the sea, as well as on the land, vast quantities of melted earth or lava, forming strata known to geologists as basalt, tufa, &c., or eject showers of ashes and dust in such prodigious quantities as to cover many hundred square miles of the earth's surface. It was by one of these showers of ashes from Vesuvius that the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. So that, as a whole, although the sea is continually altering slowly its position, yet it pretty equally maintains the same elevation. At first thought it may be supposed that the rivers constantly flowing into the sea would alter its level, for some are so large that millions of tons of water are brought by them into the sea every hour, and there are thousands of rivers and rills which, night and day, pour in their tribute of waters; but God has wisely and kindly arranged these things (like all others) so that they shall afford us innumerable comforts, and yet not raise up the sea so that it shall cover the land, for it requires but a moment's consideration to be convinced that all this water which flows into the sea must first have been abstracted from it, and it is in this way--when the winds blow over the sea, they absorb or take up a certain quantity of the vapour which continually rises from it; for air absorbs a certain quantity, and a certain quantity only, of the vapour of water; but this quantity is determined by certain circumstances, for instance, the warmer the air, the more it will absorb, the less the pressure on the air, the more it will absorb, and the drier the air, the more it will absorb, that is, the less moisture it has already got, the more will be required to make up that quantity which the other circumstances permit it to contain. Now, what takes place if a warm, dry, light current of wind blows over the sea, landward? Why, all the vapour given off by the sea, to the amount of millions of gallons, is absorbed and carried inland by the wind or current of the air, and this continues onward, laden with moisture, until it meets with one of the several circumstances which shall cause it to be incapable of holding the quantity of moisture which it has already got; for instance, it meets with another current of air colder than itself, these mingle, the vapour of water is condensed by the cold, and a cloud is formed. This consists of minute particles of water suspended in--not absorbed by--air; these particles gradually collect, and down falls the rain on to the earth. This drains off from the surface, forming rills, which collect as they descend, by their own weight, into the lowest channels of the ground, and form into streams and rivers, and back into the sea comes the water which the air had taken away, with this difference, that it is free from salt and fit for the many uses to which fresh water alone can be applied; when the vapour rises from the sea, none of the saline matters rise with it, for, although the water is volatile, yet they are not, and this is the whole source of fresh water. It is distilled in the great laboratory of Nature, and gives nourishment to all the living beings who dwell on the land and in the rivers and lakes; or the rain may sink into the earth and be carried for miles and miles under ground, running through some porous stratum, such as gravel, until it flows out in the form of a spring, bubbling up amongst flowers and weeds, and forming the source of some river, which receiving the rain and all the springs in the country through which it flows, finds its way back into the ocean at last.