Part 1
OUTLINES
OF
CREATION.
BY
ELISHA NOYCE.
AUTHOR OF
"THE BOY'S BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL INFORMATION."
ILLUSTRATED WITH
FOUR HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS,
BY
THE BROTHERS DALZIEL.
LONDON: WARD & LOCK, 158, FLEET STREET. 1858.
(_The right of Translation is reserved._)
Dalziel, Brothers, Camden Press, London.
CONTENTS.
THE SKY.
PAGE
Sky, definition of 1
Stars, what they are 1
Sun, probable planets of 2
Nebulæ 2
Solar system 3
Planets, list of 3
Sun, the source of light 3
" size, diameter, &c. 3
" spots on 3
" compared with size of planets 4
Orbits, elliptical 5
Ellipse, definition of 5
Earth's orbit, form of 6
Mercury 6
Venus 7
Planets, inferior and superior 7
" conjunction and opposition of 8
The Earth 8
" form of, demonstrated 9
" diurnal motion of 10
" rate of motion of 10
Equinoxes and solstices 12
The Moon 12
" phases of 13
Mars 14
Jupiter 16
" satellites of 18
Saturn 18
" rings of 19
Uranus 21
Neptune 22
The planetoids 22
" supposed origin of 23
The stellar system 24
Stars, number of 24
The Milky Way 24
Nebulæ 24
Constellations 25
Stars, double 26
" variable 27
Comets 27
THE AIR.
Air, how perceived 29
" composition of 29
" weight of 30
Barometer, principle of 30
Winds, course of 31
Vapour, condensation of 31
Snow, hail, and frost 32
" red and green 32
Air, temperature of 32
Dew, cause of 33
" artificial formation of 34
Clouds and fogs 35
Lightning 36
" conductors 37
Thunder-storms 38
Rainbow 39
Air, the source of nourishment 40
" carbonic acid of 41
" the source of coal 41
THE EARTH.
Elements, list of 45
Earths, list of 46
Silica 46
Alumina, Lime, Potassa 47
Soda 48
The Earth, surface of 49
Strata 49
" diagram of 50
" various positions of 51
Faults or dykes 52
Granite 53
Gneiss 54
Strata, primary 54
Earth, primary period of 55
Stalagmites, formation of 58
Terebratula 58
Secondary system 59
Trilobites 59
Mountains, formation of 61
Earth, section of part of 62
Volcanoes, formation of 62
Coral polypi 64
Encrinites 65
Mountain limestone 65
Basalt 66
Tree-ferns, Pines, &c. 66
Air, purification of 67
Coal, formation of 67
" consumption of 68
Coal shales, ferns found in 69
Earth's surface, alterations of 69
Labyrinthodon 70
Red Sandstone, impressions in 70
Saliferous system 71
Lias and oolite 71
Ammonites and pentacrinites 72
Cretaceous system (chalk) 72
Ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus 73
Coprolites 74
Chalk, organic remains in 75
" flints of 76
Strata, tertiary 78
Alluvium and diluvium 78
" quadrupeds of 78
Dinotherium 79
Mammoth, &c. 80
Irish elk, paleotherium 81
Boulder formation 82
Fossil leaves 83
Man, as yet unformed 83
" his remains only in upper strata 83
Sculptures from Nineveh 84
Earth's surface, always changing 84
" as it is 86
Earth, temperature of 86
Europe 87
Asia and Africa 88
America 88
Australia 89
The Great Desert 89
Oceans 90
THE WATERS.
The waters 91
Sea-weeds, &c. 92
The horizon 93
The cliffs 93
The waters, their divisions 93
The sea, always the same level 94
" waters poured into it 94
Rain, how produced 95
Rivers and streams 96
" causes of their overflowing 97
Lakes 97
Chalk downs, &c., once a sea bottom 98
Sea, its encroachments 98
" waves of 99
" Sargasso 101
Gulf stream 101
Sand, formation of 102
" none in deep seas 102
Diatomaceæ 103
Foraminiferæ 104
Salt, the source of 104
Sea-water, composition of 105
Tides 105
Waters, beneficially arranged 107
Steam navigation 108
Introduction to organic kingdoms 110
THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
Quantity, distribution, &c. 112
Forests of Russia and America 113
Sargasso sea, sea-weed 114
Diatomaceæ 114
Fungi, mould, mildew, &c. 116
Coral reef, fertilisation of 118
Vegetables, composition of 118
" feed on the air 119
" the food of animals 119
" mode of growth 120
" action of light and heat on 121
Seeds, germination of 122
Growth, promoted by rain 123
Endosmose, experiment on 123
Carbonic acid decomposed by
plants 124
Sap, course of 124
Vegetables, position they hold 125
" compared with radiata 126
" description of parts of 127
Leaves, forms of 130
Corolla, forms of 132
Stamens, arrangement of 133
Fruit, forms of 134
Inflorescence, forms of 136
Vegetable kingdom, divisions of 139
Acrogenæ 141 Algæ 141 Fungi 143 Lichens, ferns 144 Liverworts 145 Mosses, various 146 Horsetails 147
Endogenæ 147
Bamboo, applications of 152
Endogenæ, orders of 154 Grasses 154 Sedges, Arums 155 Bull-rush, Colchicum 156 Lily, Narcissus 157 Crocus, Orchids 158 Naiads, Flowering rushes 159 Water Plantain 160
Exogens 160
" wood of 161
" age of 162
Baobab 163
Woods, various kinds of 165
Galls, formation of 167
Wood, uses of 167
Exogens, size of 168
Wellingtonia Gigantea 168
Banyan 170
Exogens, sub-classes of 170
Thalamifloræ, orders of 171 White Water Lily 171 Poppies, Monkshood 172 Fumitory, Water-cress 173 Helianthemum, Berberry 174 Violet, Sun-dew 175 Milkwort, Bachelor's Buttons 176 Lime Tree, St. John's Wort 177 Marsh Mallow, Meadow Geranium 178 Flax, Maple Tree 179 Rue, Wood Sorrel 180
Calycifloræ, orders of 181 Spindle Tree, Buckthorn 181 Broom, Garden Pea 182 Pear Tree, Rose, Strawberry, Loose Strife 183 French Willow, Myrtle 184 House-leek, Gooseberry 185 London Pride, Fennel, Hemlock 186
Corollifloræ, orders of 187 Melon, Dogwood 187 Honeysuckle, Guelder Rose, Cross Wort 188 Valerian, Red Valerian, Teasel 189 Coltsfoot, Ox-eye Daisy, Harebell 190 Grey Heath, Gentian, Buck-bean 191 Pimpernel, Primrose, Bindweed 192 Borage, Sage 193 Tobacco 194 Speedwell 195 Butterwort, Plantain 196 Thrift, Holly 197
Monochlamydeæ, orders of 197 Ladies' Mantle 197 Beetroot, Buckwheat 198 Oleaster, Spurge Laurel 199 Sweet Chestnut, Box 200 Hop, White Willow 201 Birch, Alder, Elm 202 Larch, Yew, Bay 203
Plants, list of poisonous 204 Monk's-hood, Wolf's-bane 204 Bryony, Green Hellebore, Stinking Hellebore 205 Mezerium, Meadow Saffron 206 Foxglove, Staves-acre 207 Nightshade 208 Hemlock, Thorn Apple 209 Poppies, Henbane 210 Caper, Wild Lettuce 211 Fungi, poisonous 212
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
Animalculæ in water 215
Man, created, not developed 217
Animals, chief division of 217
Animals, invertebrate 217
Infusoria 218
Protozoa 218
Infusoria, higher kinds of 220
Entozoa (intestinal worms) 221
Zoophytes (Sertularia, &c.) 221
Sponge 222
Gorgonia 222
Actinia 223
Corals (Tubipora musica, &c.) 224
Flustra (Sea mats) 225
Echinodermata (Star-fishes, &c.) 225
Sea urchins, &c. 226
Articulata 227
Annellata (Worms, &c.) 227
Cirripeda (Sea acorns) 228
Crustacea 229
Insects 231
" metamorphoses of 231
" parts of 232
" depredations by 234
" orders of 236 Beetles 236 Grasshoppers, Locusts, &c. 237 Dragon-flies, May-flies, &c. 238 Bees, Wasps, &c. 240 Ants, habitations of 240 White Ants 245 Stylops 247 Butterflies, Moths, &c. 248 Silkworm 249 Bugs, Aphides, &c. 250 House-fly, Gnat, &c. 250 Flea, Chigoe 251 Spiders and Scorpions 252
Mollusca 252 Nautilus, mussel, &c. 255 Tunicated molluscs 255 Lingula, Terebratula, &c. 256 Oyster, cockle, scallop, &c. 256 Clio borealis 257 Snail, slug, whelk, &c. 257 Cuttle-fish, nautilus, &c. 258
Vertebrata 259
Fishes, description of 259
Fishes, divisions of 260 Perch, Mackerel, Gurnard, &c. 261 Salmon, Pilchard, Pike, &c. 262 Turbot, Plaice, Soles, &c. 265 Eels 266 Pipe-fish, Sea Horse 267 Sea Porcupine, Sun-fish 268 Sturgeons, Sharks 269 Lamprey 270
Reptiles 271 Frogs and Toads 271 Snakes 272 Lizards, Crocodiles, &c. 274 Turtles and Tortoises 276
Birds 279
" divisions of 280 Eagles, Falcons, &c. 281 King-fisher, Woodpecker, &c. 281 Poultry, Pheasants, &c. 282 Herons, Cranes, &c. 284 Swans, Geese, &c. 285
Mammalia, orders of 286 Kangaroo, Opossum, &c. 287 Duckbill 288 Rat, Beaver, Hare, &c. 289 Anteaters 291 Ox, Deer, &c. 292 Horse, Elephant, Hog, &c. 294 Whale, Narwal, &c. 296 Lion, Tiger, &c. 297 Dogs, Wolves and Jackalls 302 Bears 302 Seals and Walrus 303 Mole, Hedgehog, &c. 303 Bats 304 Monkeys 305 Man 307
Man the only possessor of reason 308
Skeleton, diagram of 309
" parts of 310
Bones, description of 311
Muscles 312
" voluntary and involuntary 313
Ligaments and cartilages 313
Form, affected by age and sex 314
" in infancy 315
" in middle age 315
" in old age 316
" affected by sex 316
Senses, special 317
Sight 317
Eye, structure of 319
Eyes, compound 320
Hearing, smell, taste 321
Touch 322
Digestion 322
Respiration 325
Circulation of Blood 326
Man, his superior faculties 327
" varieties of 328 European race 328 Basks 329 Skiptar, Kelts (or Celts), Greeks and Latins, Sarmatians, Germans 330 Abyssinians 331 Mongolians 332 Hottentots 333 Malays 334 Papuans, Negrillo 335 Indians, or Telingans, Ethiopians 336 Australians, Negro 337
Races, numerical table of 338
INTRODUCTION.
The object of this work is to bring before the reader a simple and intelligible description of the whole Creation, without attempting to enter into minute particulars on any of the subjects more than is sufficient to present them in a form clear enough to be both comprehended, and recollected; thus aiming at the production of a taste for such knowledge, and a desire to enter more minutely into any or all of the subjects this work embraces, which desire can easily be gratified by a study of some of the many excellent works devoted exclusively to the individual parts, which in this work are treated of collectively. The want of a general knowledge of those works of the Great Creator which are constantly spread out before us, in these days of easy acquirement, amounts almost to a sin, for it is by the study of Nature in all her varied forms and associations, that we learn to "look from Nature up to Nature's God;" for who can look upon the works of God without a feeling of awe and admiration? who can look upwards at "the spacious firmament on high," without a sense of his own insignificance? who can gaze around upon the beauty and variety the earth displays, without a strong desire to know more of such a Great Creator's works?--and he who knows the most, be sure it is he who will worship Him with the truest and most heartfelt gratitude and admiration. The works of God (next to the Divine revelation of His will) are the highest studies to which Man can apply his intellect; it has required the greatest study of the greatest minds to find out and record but a few facts to add to the general store, and surely no one should consider his time misspent who can read over such records, and trace their truth by comparison with Nature, the more especially as it is by these means a love of inquiry is engendered, and that ultimately he may be enabled by diligent perusal of the great Book of Nature, to add his quota to the store of knowledge already formed and recorded.
It is true that infidels have often brought forward some branch of Science in confutation of Scripture, but it is also a fact that in nearly every such case, the very arguments that have been used by these men, have at last become the strongest arguments on the other side. Geology was at first adduced as a proof that the world had existed from all eternity, instead of having been created by an Omnipotent God, and the question had often been asked, "Can you produce one proof of the creation of anything?" Now this was a difficult question to answer, until Geology made manifest the fact that Man was created, by producing a clear and unimpeachable proof that up to a certain time, he did _not_ exist on the earth, and that at a period of time, a little later, he _did_ exist; the space between these epochs is not known, but it has nothing to do with the argument, for within that period (whatever it may have been) Man _was_ created, and created as perfect in his physical organisation as he is at present--no long series of developments from the higher animals by fortuitous circumstances, as some pretend--no gradual addition of parts to suit the physical changes of the earth's surface. There is undoubted proof from the oldest records, in the form of Sculptures, that Man's appearance has always been the same, and the records of the Bible (the _antiquity_ of which, at all events, cannot be disputed) show that the constitution of his mind was at that time just as it is now--every passion, every desire the same--the only advance he has made, is in the knowledge of God's works; the application of that knowledge to his own benefit, and the glorification of his Maker.
THE SKY.
The Sky is the familiar name used to express that wonderful and vast expanse of space which extends on all sides far beyond our knowledge or conception, and in which the earth and millions of other orbs move round suns as their centres. Countless millions of these suns exist at immense distances apart and of the most prodigious magnitudes (many thousand times larger than this earth), these are the stars which on clear nights we see twinkling so brightly in the sky; our sun is one of them, but being very much nearer to us than the others it appears proportionately larger and brighter, and is our centre of attraction and circulation. There is but little doubt that every star has its circulating worlds or "planets," but these are too small to be seen even with the best telescopes; this may be understood when it is considered that the stars themselves, by the most powerful aids, appear but as bright points or specks, and they are thousands of times larger than the worlds which would circulate round them. But though their planets cannot be perceived by the naked eye, yet analogy teaches us that they in all probability exist, for very many of the heavenly bodies have satellites revolving round them, of such are our moon and the moons of Jupiter, and in this sense the planets themselves may be considered as the satellites of the sun, and as the sun has its satellites revolving round it, it is fair to conclude that it is not the only one of all the stars which has. All these thousands of suns and planets, millions of miles apart, and occupying space, the extent of which we have no terms to express, form but one system of stars out of many, for by comparison with infinite space they occupy but a point, telescopes of the greatest power having revealed that beyond all these stars, there is an immense space in which are seen other systems of stars, as great and numerous as our own, to which the name "Nebulæ" has been given. The mind fails to reach to such magnitude, and it is certain that the study of these great things, brings us to regard size and space (like time) as nothing; for it appears that God has expanded or contracted His works at will to suit His plan of creation without regard to limit; whether we look at the most minute shell or the greatest orb, still His marks of design are equally evident. If we consider it wonderful that God should take up hundreds of millions of miles for one system, and that He should scatter through space millions of such systems, then let us lay aside the telescope and, after an exclamation of adoration, take up the microscope, by which we shall learn that God has also placed millions of systems equally wonderful within the compass of an inch! We shall at once acknowledge that he is "Lord of all," and that size, space, quantity, and time, are mere fictions of our own imperfect minds, and that to an Infinite God there is no difficulty from such sources.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
This is the name given to that collection of worlds which, with the sun as a centre, circulate at different distances from and around it. There have at present been discovered eight large planets and thirty-four smaller ones called "asteroids" or "planetoids," the larger planets revolving in the following order from the sun or centre:--
1. MERCURY. 2. VENUS. 3. THE EARTH. 4. MARS. 5. JUPITER. 6. SATURN. 7. URANUS. 8. NEPTUNE.
The Sun, the centre of the solar system, is the great source of light and heat to our planet and all others which revolve around it, as well as of another agent not so well understood, namely "actinism," or that power which produces the chemical changes in many substances exposed to the sun's rays, and which has been of late turned to such useful and wonderful account in the art of photography.
The sun is an immense sphere, many thousand times larger than our earth, or indeed all the planets put together. It turns upon its axis in twenty-five days, and, like all spheres which rotate, has a slightly flattened form; it is supposed that the sun itself, carrying its planets with it, performs a journey round some other centre very far away, but for all the purposes of explaining the solar system it may be supposed to be stationary. The diameter of the sun is about 890,000 miles, or nearly 112 times the diameter of our earth, and as the bulk of spheres is as the cubes of their diameters, it follows that the sun is about 1,400,000 times the bulk of the earth. Fig. 1 shows the relative size of the sun and the planets which rotate round it; the specific gravity of the sun is about a quarter that of our earth or one-and-a-half times that of water. On its surface irregularities are seen (by the aid of the telescope) which give it a wavy appearance, and beside these, black spots or tracts (_maculæ_) which appear to traverse from west to east, across its face; these however do not travel on, but are carried round by the sun in its rotation, for by observing any one of them, it is seen to go across and make its appearance again at the other side, and the time it takes to arrive at the place where it was first seen, determines the time of the sun's rotation, which (as before stated) is twenty-five days or nearly; these spots alter in size, form, and number from time to time, some of them remaining permanent for months, others closing in and disappearing in a few hours.