Chapter 2

Letters, Sounds, Syllables, Words, Principles of Pronunciation, and Rules of Spelling.

SEVENTH YEAR.

(First Month.)

TERMS TO BE DEFINED.

An ELEMENTARY SOUND is the simplest sound of spoken language.

There are forty-four elementary sounds in the English language. As there are only twenty-six letters in the alphabet some letters represent more than one sound. Certain marks or distinguishing characters used with the letters to indicate the various sounds are called DIACRITICAL MARKS.

PHONOTYPY is a method of representing each of the elementary sounds by a distinct printed character or letter.

The VOCALS or TONICS are those elementary sounds made by an unmodified or uninterrupted tone of the voice; as [=a], [)e].

The SUBVOCALS or SUBTONICS are those elementary sounds made by the tone of the voice modified by the organs of speech, making an undertone; as b, d, g, r.

The ASPIRATES or ATONICS are those elementary sounds made by merely breathing modified by the organs of speech; sometimes called breath sounds; as p, t, s.

TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS.

[From Swett's Normal Word Book.]

_I. Vocals._

+--------------+-------------------------+ | a | [=a]-le, [=a]i-m | | ä | ä-lms, ä-rt | | [a:] | [a:]-ll, b-[a:]-ll | | [)a] | [)a]-n, m-[)a]-n | | â | [-c]-â-re, â-ir | | [.a] | [.a]-sk, f-[.a]-st | | [=e] | [=e]-ve, b-[=e] | | [ve] | [ve]-nd, m-[ve]-n | | [~e] | h-[~e]-r, [~e]-rr | | [=i], [=y] | [=i]-ce, b-[=y] | | [)i], [)y] | [)i]-t, h-[)y]-mn | | [=o] | [=o]-ld, n-[=o] | | [vo] | [vo]-n, n-[vo]-t | | [o:], [=oo] | m-[o:]-ve, m-[=oo]-n | | [=u] | [=u]-se, m-[=u]-[s,]e | | [vu] | [vu]-p, b-[vu]-t | | û | û-rge, b-û-rn | | [u.], [)oo] | f-[u.]-ll, w-[)oo]-l | | oi, oy | oi-l, b-oy | | ou, ow | ou-t, ow-l | +--------------+-------------------------+

_II. Subvocals._

+----------+-------------------------------+ | b | b-i-b, b-a-be | | d | d-i-d, d-ea-d | | [=g] | [=g]-i-[=g], [=g]-a-[=g] | | j | j-ar, j-et | | l | l-u-ll, te-ll | | m | m-ai-m, [-c]a-me | | n | n-u-n, n-o-ne | | ng, [n=] | ri-ng, i-[n=]-k | | r | r-oa-r, r-ea-r | | th | th-ese, wi-th | | v | val-ue, v-ain | | w | w-ell, w-eb | | y | y-es, y-et | | z | z-one, z-est | | zh, z | a-z'-ure, sei-z'-ure | +----------+-------------------------------+

_III. Aspirates._

+--------------+-------------------------+ | f | f-i-fe, o-ff | | h | h-at, h-ome | | k | k-ite, k-ill | | p | p-i-pe, to-p | | s | s-un, s-ame | | t | t-en-t, t-ar-t | | ch | ch-ur-ch, ch-ild | | sh | sh-all, wi-sh | | th | th-in, th-ree | | wh | wh-ere, wh-y | +--------------+-------------------------+

NOTE.--The foregoing forty-four sounds are those most employed in the English language. Some of these sounds are represented by other letters, as shown in the following:

#IV.--Table of Equivalents.#

[Dictionary Work--Metcalf & DeGarmo.]

CHAR. EQUIV. [=e] = [=i] [~e] = [~i] = û [=a] = [e=] â = ê ô = [a:] (_broad a_) [o:] = [=oo] = [u:] [)i] = [)y] [)u] = [.o]

[)o] = [a.] [o.] = [)oo] = [u.] [=i] = [=y] oi = oy ou = ow [=u] = ew

CHAR. EQUIV. j = [.g] (soft) g = [=g] (hard) z = [[s.]=] k = [-c] = [-c]h f = ph s = ç (_cedilla c_) sh = çh [n=] = ng x = ks [x=] = gz

COGNATE sounds are such as are produced by the same organs of speech in a similar position. The cognates are in pairs, as follows: _Vowels_: [=a] [)e], [=e] [)i], â [)a], ä [.a], [a:] [)o], û [)u], [=o][=o] [)oo]; _consonants_: g' k, b p, d t, j ch, th th, v f, z s.

#[Second Month.]#

LETTERS.

A LETTER is a mark or character used to represent a sound,--usually an elementary sound.

An ALPHABET is an orderly arrangement of all the letters of a language.

The NUMBER OF LETTERS in the different alphabets vary, as follows: English 26, Arabic 28, French 25, German 26, Greek 24, Hebrew 22, Italian 21, Russian 33, Spanish 27, Sanskrit 49. The Chinese have no alphabet, but about 20,000 syllabic characters.

The POWER OF A LETTER is the elementary sound for which it stands.

LETTERS AS TO FORM are either script or print.

There are many different STYLES OF LETTERS; as, Roman, Italic, Old English, and Script.

As to SIZE letters are both capital and lower case.

#[Third Month.]#

VOWELS.

A VOWEL sound is a free and uninterrupted sound of the voice. The vowel sounds are formed by the voice modified, but not interrupted, by the various positions of the tongue and lips.

A CONSONANT sound is an articulate sound made by the obstructed voice, and which in utterance is usually combined with a vowel sound.

There is no absolute division between vowels and consonants. Certain vowels are so open as to be only vowels, certain consonants are so close as to be only consonants; but there are yet others which have the value now of vowels and now of consonants; as, _i_, _u_, _w_, and _y_.

"_Y_ as a vowel is a substitute for _i_, and _i_ is a consonant as a substitute for _y_. _W_ and _y_ are vowels: (1) When they end words or syllables, (2) when they are not followed by a vowel in the same syllable, (3) when they are followed by a silent vowel in the same syllable. _W_ and _y_ are consonants when they begin words or syllables and are immediately followed by a vowel. _I_ is a consonant when it represents the consonant _y_, as in _alien_. _U_ is a consonant when it represents the consonant _w_, as in _quick_, _language_."--_Irish's Orthography._

A DIPHTHONG is produced by running together two vowel sounds in the same syllable.

A diphthong is PROPER if both the vowels are sounded; as _o_ and _i_ in _boil_.

An IMPROPER DIPHTHONG or DIGRAPH is merely a collection of two vowels in the same syllable, of which only one is sounded; as in _rain_, _teach_.

The diphthongs in the following words are all that are in common use, viz.: t_oi_l, t_oy_, s_ou_nd, c_ow_, p_ea_l, _oi_l, _au_dible, _aw_ning, s_ay_, s_ei_ne, p_eo_ple, f_eu_d, ob_ey_, esch_ew_, bel_ie_ve, l_oa_n, h_oe_, h_ue_, j_ui_ce. Of these _oi_, _oy_, _ou_, and _ow_ are the only _proper_ diphthongs.

A TRIPHTHONG is produced by running together three vowel sounds in the same syllable.

A triphthong is PROPER if all three of the vowels are sounded. (But there are no proper triphthongs that I know of.)

A triphthong is IMPROPER or is called a TRIGRAPH if one or two of the three vowels is silent; as in ad_ieu_, b_eau_ty.

#[Fourth Month.]#

CONSONANTS.

CONSONANTS are divided on three different bases; as follows:

I. MUTES and SEMIVOWELS.

The mutes represent an explosive sound, and are so called because the mouth organs are closed just before the sound is uttered and the voice is momentarily _mute_.

The four subvocals _b_, _d_, _j_, _g_, and their cognates, _p_, _t_, _ch_, and _k_, are generally classed as mutes. Pronounce them and see if they do not represent _explosive_ sounds.

All other consonants are _semivowels_, and are pronounced with a _continuous_ sound. The sound may be continued so long as the breath lasts; but in the case of mutes the sound must stop with the explosive utterance.

II. The SUBVOCALS and ASPIRATES are shown in the vertical columns of the table below. The subvocals are sometimes called _voice_ consonants and the aspirates _breath_ consonants. These are fit terms, for they indicate the basis of classification.

III. LABIALS, LINGUA-DENTALS, and PALATALS constitute a classification of the consonants with respect to the place of formation. Bead the table from left to right. The _lips_ have most to do with making the labial sounds; the lingua-dentals are formed at the point of the _tongue_ in contact with the _teeth_, the palatals between the tongue and hard and soft _palate_.

#Consonant Table.#

#Subvocals.# #Aspirates.# (Voice.) (Breath.) Labials. { b p (Lips.) { v f { w wh { m

Lingua- { d t Dentals. { z s (Point of{ th (sonant) (non-sonant) th tongue.) { l { n { r

Palatals.{ zh sh (Between { j ch tongue { g k and { y palate.) { h { ng

EIGHTH YEAR.

#[First Month.]#

SYLLABLES.

SYLLABLE literally means _taken together_.

A SPOKEN SYLLABLE is an elementary sound, or a combination of elementary sounds, uttered _together_, or with a single impulse of the voice. It constitutes a word or a part of a word.

A WRITTEN or printed syllable is a part of a word separated from the rest, and capable of pronunciation by a single impulse of the voice.

As to where a word shall be divided in making it into syllables depends upon the PURPOSE OF SYLLABICATION. When the purpose is to show the derivation the division is made with reference to the component parts (roots, prefixes, and suffixes); but if the purpose is to indicate correct pronunciation, the result may be very different. For illustration, the following words are divided, first, to show derivation: abs-tract, bene-vol-ent, pre-de-cess-or, e-duc-ate, phon-o-typ-y, pro-gress, e-lig-ible; and, second, to indicate correct pronunciation: ab-stract, be-nev-o-lent, pred-e-ces-sor, ed-u-cate, pho-not-y-py, prog-ress, el-i-gi-ble.

While in the illustrations here given the syllables formed for one purpose are very different from those formed for the other, yet in the majority of words the resulting syllables are the same whether divided for one purpose or for the other.

In the United States the prevailing purpose of syllabication is to indicate pronunciation.

The ULTIMATE syllable of a word is the last (_ultimus_ = last); the PENULTIMATE is next to the last (_pen_ = almost); the ANTEPENULTIMATE is the third from the last (literally, _before almost_ the _last_); the PREANTEPENULTIMATE is the fourth from the last (literally, _before_ the one that is _before_ the one _almost last_).

#[Second Month.]#

ACCENT.

ACCENT is stress of voice on a particular syllable in pronouncing a word.

In long words two, and sometimes three, syllables are accented. But one syllable is always accented more strongly than the others are. The stronger accent is called the PRIMARY accent, the weaker is called the SECONDARY. Thus, in _am' mu ni' tion_ the primary accent falls on the third syllable and the secondary on the first.

The "PRINCIPLES" which govern the placing of accent are complicated. The International Dictionary says there are no principles by which to determine the accent in English. Another high authority says: "All attempts to assign rules for the place of the accent in English only serve to render the subject hopelessly intricate and confounded."

There are, however, certain _tendencies_ which mature pupils might profitably consider, but the limited scope of this book will not permit me to attempt to set them forth.

In the words of the following list the accent changes with a change of meaning. When nouns or adjectives these words are accented on the first syllable; when verbs, on the second:

abstract accent compound conflict concert contract contrast converse convict desert escort export ferment forecast frequent incense insult permit prefix present produce project record survey

#[Third Month.]#

WORDS.

A WORD is a sign of an idea. It may be either spoken or written.

A PRIMITIVE, OR ROOT, word is one not derived from any other word of the language; as, _fix_, _strike_, _man_.

A DERIVATIVE is a word formed from a primitive by changing it internally, or by adding a prefix or suffix; as, _men_, _suffix_, _strikers_.

A SIMPLE WORD is a single word. It may be either primitive or derivative.

A COMPOUND WORD is a combination of two or more simple words; as, buck-saw, well-behaved, school-room.

A word of one syllable is a _monosyllable_ (mono = one); of two syllables, a _dissyllable_ (dis = two); of three syllables, a _trisyllable_ (tri = three); of three or more syllables, a _polysyllable_ (poly = many).

The ROOT of a word is its fundamental or elementary part which carries the primitive notion or significance with it, without prefix or suffix; as, _ge_ (earth), _graph_ (write), _vol_ (wish).

A PREFIX is a significant syllable joined to the beginning of a word; as, _auto_graph, _circum_vent, _amphi_theater.

A SUFFIX is a significant syllable joined to the end of a word; as, man _ly_, fert _ile_, ment _ion_.

AFFIX is a general term for prefixes and suffixes; it may be applied to either or to both together.

SEVENTH YEAR.

#[Fifth Month.]#

SILENT LETTERS.

Silent letters have at least four uses:

1. To modify sounds of other letters in the same syllable.

Drop final silent _e_ from such words as the following and note the effect on the sound of the other vowel in the same syllable: _bare_, _pure_, _ripe_, _lame_.

2. To indicate pronunciation.

In the four words last given, for illustration, the pronunciation changes when the final silent _e_ is dropped.

Another class of words ending in _ce_ and _ge_ retain the final silent _e_ on adding a suffix beginning with _a_ or _o_ to preserve the soft sound of _c_ and _g_, and with it the correct pronunciation of the word; as, _serviceable_, _noticeable_, _changeable_, _courageous_.

3. To show the meaning of words.

Illustrations: _clime_, _climb_, _plumb_, _belle_, _butt_, _dyeing_, _singeing_, _guilt_, _damn_.

4. To show the derivation of words.

Numerous illustrations are found in words derived from the Greek. In _chronic_, and _chronology_, the _h_ is silent, but serves to indicate that the root of those words is identical with the Greek root _chron_, which means _time_. Similarly the _g_ in _gnostic_, the _e_ in _eulogy_, _p_ in _pneumonia_, the _h_ in _chromatic_.

In _honour_ and _favour_ _u_ is silent, and therefore a useless letter, so far as sound is concerned. The _u_ signifies that the word came to us through the French, instead of directly from the Latin. The question is, whether we shall go to the trouble of writing the extra letter in a large class of such words for the sake of the historical association. Perhaps one in a thousand would choose to do so, but others of us are more intent on saving time and ink. When the spelling reform idea becomes operative with English speaking people, a great many silent letters will go the way of the _u_ in _labour_, _favour_, and the like.

The following are some of the numerous classes of silent letters together with the principle found to be operative through them.

#[Sixth Month.]#

"_E_ final is silent when preceded by another vowel in the same syllable."

change sense adverse Chinese condense brace quite bade oppose deceive force scribe burlesque embrace machine crease measure canine emerge endorse cease absolve caprice examine advise

#[Seventh Month.]#

"_B_ is usually silent before _t_ or after _m_ in the same syllable."

lamb tomb numb debt bomb comb thumb dumb doubt crumb limb climb plumb redoubt jamb

#[Eighth Month.]#

"_C_ is silent before _k_ in the same syllable. _C_ is silent in czar, victuals, muscle, corpuscle, indict, and Connecticut."

back deck lack stack Patrick buck duck hack stick reckon burdock chick luck suck thicken clock click lick beckon Cossack

EIGHTH YEAR.

#[First Month.]#

"_D_ is silent before _g_ in the same syllable."

edge hedge ridge lodge misjudge wedge budge bridge sledge judgment pledge drudge fudge begrudge lodgment

#[Second Month.]#

"_G_ is silent before _m_ or _n_ in the same syllable."

phlegm malign gnaw campaign gnash arraign paradigm feign foreign gnu benign diaphragm reign design seignior resign gnat assign gnarl consign

#[Third Month.]#

"_H_ is silent when it follows _g_ or _r_ in the same syllable."

ghost myrrh rheumatism rhapsody rhinoceros aghast hemorrhage rhyme rhythm Rhine gherkin rhubarb rhombus rhomboid catarrh

#[Fourth Month.]#

"_K_ is silent before _n_ in the same syllable."

knack kneel knot knap sack knob knave knife knock knowledge knucks knead knight knoll knuckle knarl knee knit know knell knout

#[Fifth Month.]#

"_N_ final after _l_ or _m_ is silent."

hymn contemn solemn limn damn kiln condemn column autumn

#[Sixth Month.]#

"_T_ is silent before _ch_ in the same syllable."

hitch pitch match notch catch kitchen botch hatch scratch patch latch Dutch watch Mitchell satchel thatch ditch witch batch Scotch

#[Seventh Month.]#

"_W_ is silent before _r_ in the same syllable."

wrestle wren wrist writing wreak wrong wrote wreck wrest writ wring wraith awry write wrought wrath wretch wreath wrinkle wrangle

#[Eighth Month.]#

"_Gh_ is always silent after _i_ and, when not a substitute for _f_ or _k_, is also silent after _au_ and _ou_."

sight plight weigh fraught through light wright weight caught although fight height freight thought slaughter might wight aught daughter laughter

SEVENTH YEAR.

PRINCIPLES OF PRONUNCIATION WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.

#[Sixth Month.]#

"_A_ constituting or ending an unaccented syllable is short Italian _a_."

again America banana fatality papa alas amuse canine fatigue parasol algebra apparatus China lapel pica alkali area data massacre sacrament amass arena drama ornament valise

#[Seventh Month.]#

"_E_ constituting or ending a syllable is long."

depot memento obedience really society event museum penal recess superior feline nausea precedence resource theater frequent negro precise sacrilegious theology mechanic notoriety pretense secretary veto

#[Eighth Month.]#

"_O_ constituting or ending a syllable is long."

broken explosive melodeon poem spoken chosen gondola melody police tobacco composition licorice open potato trophy coquet location opponent promotion zodiac cupola locust pantomime proviso zoölogy

EIGHTH YEAR.

#[Fourth Month.]#

"_I_constituting or ending an unaccented syllable, not initial, is always short, and is usually short even in initial syllables, if unaccented."

divide tirade sentinel fidelity residence direct intimate continent digest levity finance indivisible defensible hilarious reticent imitate equidistant predicate maritime reticule piazza nobility finance invitation direction

In the _initial_ syllables _i_, _bi_, _chi_, _cli_, _cri_, _pri_, _tri_, however, _i_ is generally _long_.

idea biology climatic primeval tripod idle Chinese criterion triangular triune isothermal chirography biennial binomial priority

#[Fifth Month.]#

_E_ before terminal _n_ should always be silent in participles, and also in most other words.

given stolen ridden bidden forsaken taken proven shaken woven gotten broken driven written shaven risen spoken frozen arisen chidden smitten fallen hidden beaten eaten stricken

also

heaven oaken happen burden leaven often leaden seven garden brazen widen golden even eleven christen

But in the following words _e_ should be sounded:

hyphen chicken marten lichen sudden linden linen gluten mitten aspen

_E_ should also be sounded in any word (not a participle) in which terminal _en_ is immediately preceded by _l_, _m_, _n_, or _r_.

women Ellen Helen omen pollen barren linen woolen Allen Warren

#[Sixth Month.]#

"_E_ before terminal _l_ should usually be sounded."

Abel model morsel cancel marvel level travel rebel gravel barrel nickel apparel towel channel kennel chapel citadel revel Mabel libel camel laurel bevel funnel parcel

But in the following words and in their derivatives _e_ before terminal _l_ should not be sounded:

easel weasel ravel mantel shekel navel chattel shrivel drivel snivel shovel grovel mussel hazel teasel

#[Seventh Month.]#

"In most words _i_ before terminal _l_ or _n_ should be sounded."

Latin vigil anvil goblin coffin cavil cabin council rosin origin javelin pencil axil assassin tranquil resin bobbin violin peril moccasin retail satin utensil pistil daffodil

In the following words _i_ should not be sounded:

devil basin evil cousin weevil raisin

#[Eighth Month.]#

"_I_ accented in most words from the French has the sound of long _e_."

pique quarantine police critique unique machine routine ravine regime intrigue caprice suite valise Bastile magazine guillotine fatigue antique

SEVENTH YEAR.

RULES OF SPELLING.

Many people think that rules of spelling are of no value, because they are hard to remember and because of numerous exceptions. This is certainly true of a great many such rules (and there are a great many); but three or four of these rules apply to so many words difficult to spell, and they have such a small number of exceptions that they are well worth while. Several hundred words are spelled according to the first rule given below. The rule itself is short, and all of the exceptions could be learned "for keeps" by a pupil in an hour. But _pupils must have drill in applying the rules_ or they may be able to repeat the rules perfectly and glibly and not be able to spell the words coming under them.

Since the rule given for the work of the first month, seventh year, and that given for the second month, are counterparts, each of the other, I prefer to take them together. Knowing that "_silent final e is dropped when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added_", we naturally infer its counterpart, viz.: "_Silent final e is retained when a suffix beginning with a consonant is added._"

To bring about the necessary drill and insure attention to the application of the rule, I suggest that a class of pupils, reciting by turns, spell at least twenty-five words according to the following model. [The words are on the board in this form: love + able, care + less.]

"The suffix _able_ begins with the vowel _a_; therefore when it is added to the word _love_ the final silent _e_ is dropped, and the word is spelled _lovable_." Or,

"The suffix _less_ begins with the consonant _l_; therefore, when it is added to the word _care_ the final silent _e_ is not dropped, and the word is spelled _careless_."

Words to be spelled according to this model should be mixed,--those in which the suffix to be added begins with a vowel mixed with those in which the suffix begins with a consonant. Exceptions ought to be thrown into the mixture, and when a pupil comes to an exception, he can proceed according to the model, concluding with, "but this word is an exception to the rule".

Fifty words are here given to illustrate this rule, but pupils who want to do thorough work should spell several such fifties.

#[First Month.]#

love--able adventure--ous decide--ing care--less change--ing ice--berg blame--able extreme--ly house--keeper achieve--ment fickle--ness idle--ness brake--man fore--cast excite--ment cure--able compare--able console--able discourage--ment continue--ally endure--ance prove--able contrive--ance amaze--ment move--able guide--ance fierce--ness acquire--ing forgive--ness peace--ful else--where hate--ful deface--ment enlarge--ment believe--ing disgrace--ful admire--able converse--ed blue--ish abide--ing hedge--hog lodge--ing advertise--ment achieve--ing amuse--ment eye--brow hoarse--ness dine--ing pursue--ing argue--ing revenge--ful

EXCEPTIONS.

Words ending in _ce_ and _ge_ retain the _e_ when a suffix beginning with _a_ or _o_ is added.

changeable challengeable pronounceable exchangeable peaceable advantageous chargeable serviceable outrageous manageable traceable courageous marriageable noticeable vengeance

OTHER EXCEPTIONS.

hoeing singeing seer nursling truly shoeing tingeing seeing loathsome duty toeing freeing agreeable awful wisdom dyeing fleeing mileage duly wholly

Five other exceptions, to be remembered together: argument, judgment, lodgment, abridgment, acknowledgment.

The exceptions here given, which are practically all of the exceptions to this rule, should be reviewed until they cannot be forgotten. The value of the rule depends much on a thorough committal of the exceptions.

#[Third Month.]#

Rule II: "When a suffix is added to a word ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, the _y_ is changed to _i_, unless the suffix begins with _i_."

Model for drill on this rule (supply + ed, display + ed are written on the board):

"The _y_ in _supply_ is preceded by a consonant, therefore, when the suffix _ed_ is added the _y_ is changed to _i_ and the word is spelled, _supplied_." Or,

"The _y_ in display is preceded by a vowel, therefore when the suffix _ed_ is added the _y_ is not changed, and the word is spelled, _displayed_."

carry + ed study + es espy + ed juicy + est hurry + es destroy + ed deny + ing homely + est marry + ing pity + ing survey + ed pity + ful decay + ed pity + less employ + ing rally + es annoy + s joy + less noisy + est pretty + est copy + ed city + es mighty + er pity + able

EXCEPTIONS.

_y_ does not change before _'s_; as in

la'dy's en'e my's ba'by's coun'try's

Other exceptions to the rule, or to what is inferred from it:

staid (_or_ stayed) slain dry'ly la'dy like paid dai'ly dry ness la dy bug laid sly ly (_but_, dri'er, la dy ship said sly ness dri'est) ba by hood saith shy ly shy ness ba by house

#[Fourth and Fifth Months.]#

Rule III: "Monosyllables or words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel." This rule carries with it the inference that the final consonant is not doubled unless these conditions are all complied with.

Model for drill on this rule:

"_Refer_ is not a monosyllable, but it is accented on the last syllable; it ends in a single consonant _r_, preceded by a single vowel _e_; therefore, on adding the suffix _ed_, beginning with the vowel _e_, the final consonant _r_ is doubled, and the word is spelled, _referred_."

refer + ed gallop + ed suspend + ed suffer + ing omit + ed abhor + ence kidnap + ed travel + ed cheat + ed join + ing admit + ing rebel + ious flatter + ed benefit + ed differ + ence fertil + izer prefer + ing permit + ed enamel + ed quarrel + ing remit + ance map + ing drug + ist brag + art heap + ing connect + ing emit + ed unfit + ed confer + ing offer + ed conceal + ed parallel + ed acquit + ed* commit + ee shelter + ed stir + ing root + ed squeal + ing intermit + ent equal + ed depend + ent begin + er cheer + ed vigor + ous occur + ed shovel + ed forgot + en regret + ed submit + ed transmit + ed drum + er spin + ing

* After _q_, _u_ is a consonant.

EXCEPTIONS.

The final consonant is not doubled when, in the derivative, the accent is thrown from the last syllable of the primitive; as, _re fer'_, _ref'er ence_.

ref'er ence def'er ence ref er ee' pref er ence in fer ence ref'er a ble _or_ con fer ence pref er a ble re fer'ri ble

OTHER EXCEPTIONS.

gas es (but gassy) tranquillity gas eous humbug ging trans fer able crystallize humbug ged ex cellence chagrined

NOTE.--There is a large class of words ending in _l_, and accented on some other syllable than the last, in whose derivatives the _l_ is doubled by many writers; but it accords more with the analogy of the language not to double the _l_. Such words are the following: apparel, cancel, channel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, enamel, equal, gambol, grovel, jewel, libel, marshal, marvel, metal, model, panel, peril, quarrel.

REFERENCE TABLE OF SUFFIXES.

_able_, see ble _age_, that which, having _ain_, see ian _al_, pertaining to _an_, pertaining to, one who _ant_, one who, that which, quality of, condition of _ary_, one who, that which, place where, condition of, quality of, pertaining to _ate_, act of, state of, shaped like _ble_, capable of, fit to be _cle_, little, that which _ed_, condition of _ee_, one who _ence_, see ant _ent_, see ant _er_, one who, that which _es_, see er _et_, little _ful_, full of, having _fy_, to make _ial_, see al _ian_, one who _ible_, see ble _ic_, pertaining to _il_, see ile _ile_, capable of, quality of _ion_, act of, state of, that which _ious_, see ous _ish_, act of _is_, that which _ise_, see ize _ism_, state of, doctrine of _ist_, one who _ity_, that which, state of being, quality of _ive_, that which, quality of _ize_, act of _lent_, full of _less_, without _ly_, state of being _ment_, that which _oid_, form _or_, one who _ory_, see ary _ous_, full of, quality of, having _tic_, see ic _tude_, quality of _ty_, see ity _ure_, that which, act of _y_, that which

INDEX TO ROOTS.

This index is to be used as a cross-reference by means of which, words in different parts of the book having a common root may be associated.

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