Part 6

In all sentences containing the statement of a reciprocal or mutual action there are in reality two assertions, viz. the assertion that A _strikes_ (or _loves_) B, and the assertion that B _strikes_ (or _loves_) A; the action forming one, the reaction another. Hence, if the expression exactly coincided with the fact signified, there would always be two propositions. This, however, is not the habit of language. Hence arises a more compendious form of expression, giving origin to an ellipsis of a peculiar kind. Phrases like _Eteocles and Polynices killed each other_ are elliptical for _Eteocles and Polynices killed_--_each the other_. Here the second proposition expands and explains the first, whilst the first supplies the verb to the second. Each, however, is elliptic. The first is without the object, the second without the verb. That the verb must be in the plural (or dual) number, that one of the nouns must be in the nominative case, and that the other must be objective, is self-evident from the structure of the sentence; such being the conditions of the expression of the idea. An aposiopesis takes place after a plural verb, and then there follows a clause wherein the verb is supplied from what went before.

When words equivalent to _each other_ coalesce, and become compound; it is evident that the composition is of a very peculiar kind. Less, however, for these matters than for its value in elucidating the origin of certain deponent verbs does the expression of reciprocal action merit the notice of the philologist. In the latter part of the paper it will appear that for one branch of languages, at least, there is satisfactory evidence of a reflective form having become reciprocal, and of a reciprocal form having become deponent; this latter word being the term for those verbs whereof the meaning is active, and the form passive.

Beginning with those methods of denoting mutual action where the expression is the least explicit and unequivocal, it appears that in certain languages the reciprocal character of the verb is implied rather than expressed. _Each man looked at his brother_--or some equivalent clause, is the general phraseology of the Semitic languages.

More explicit than this is the use of a single pronoun (personal, possessive, or reflective) and of some adverb equivalent to the words _mutually_, _interchangeably_, &c. This is the habit of the Latin language,--_Eteocles et Polynices invicem se trucidaverunt_: also of the French, although not invariably, e. g. _s'entr'aimer_, _s'entredire_, _s'entrebattre_: also of the Mœso-Gothic--galeikái sind barnam tháim vôpjandam seina _missô_ = ὅμοιοί εἰσι παιδίοις τοῖς προσφωνούσιν ἀλλήλοις = loquentibus ad invicem.--Luc. vii. 32. Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 322, and iii. 13. The Welsh expressions are of this kind; the only difference being that the adverb coalesces with the verb, as an inseparable particle, and so forms a compound. These particles are _dym_, _cym_, or _cy_ and _ym_. The former is compounded of _dy_, signifying _iteration_, and _ym_ denoting _mutual action_; the latter is the Latin _cum_. Hence the reciprocal power of these particles is secondary: e. g. _dymborthi_, to aid mutually; _dymddadlu_, to dispute; _dymgaru_, to love one another; _dymgoddi_, to vex one another; _dymgredu_, to trust one another, or confide; _dymguraw_, to strike one another, or fight; _çyçwennys_, to desire mutually; _cydadnabod_, to know one another; _cydaddawiad_, to promise mutually; _cydwystlaw_, to pledge; _cydymadrawn_, to converse; _cydymdaith_, to accompany; _ymadroddi_, to discourse; _ymaddaw_, to promise; _ymavael_, to struggle; _ymdaeru_, to dispute, &c.

The form, which is at once current, full, and unequivocal, is the one that occurs in our own, and in the generality of languages. Herein there are two nouns (generally pronouns), and the construction is of the kind exhibited above--ἀλλήλους, _each other_, _einander_, _l'un l'autre_, &c.

Sometimes the two nouns remain separate, each preserving its independent form. This is the case in most of the languages derived from the Latin, in several of the Slavonic and Lithuanic dialects, and in (amongst others) the Old Norse, the Swedish, and the Danish,--l'un l'autre, French; uno otro, Span.; geden druheho, Bohemian; ieden drugiego, Polish; wiens wienâ, Lith.; weens ohtru, Lettish; hvert annan (masc.), hvert annat (neut.) Old Norse. See D. G. iii. 84.

Sometimes the two nouns coalesce, and form words to which it would be a mere refinement to deny the name of compounds: this is the case with the Greek--ἀλλήλων, ἀλλήλοις, ἀλλήλους.

Sometimes it is doubtful whether the phrase consist of a compound word or a pair of words. This occurs where, from the want of inflection, the form of the first word is the same in composition as it would have been out of it. Such is the case with our own language: _each-other_, _one-another_.

Throughout the mass of languages in general the details of the expression in question coincide; both subject and object are almost always expressed by pronouns, and these pronouns are much the same throughout. _One_, or some word equivalent, generally denotes the subject. _Other_, or some word equivalent, generally denotes the object, _e. g._ they struck _one another_. The varieties of expression may be collected from the following sketch:--

1. _a._ The subject is expressed by _one_, or some word equivalent, in most of the languages derived from the Latin, in several of the Slavonic dialects, in Lithuanic and Lettish, in Armenian, in German, in English, and doubtlessly in many other languages--_l'un_ l'autre, Fr.; _uno_ otro, Sp.; _ieden_ drugiego, Polish; _wiens_ wienâ, Lith.; _weens_ ohtru, Lett.; _me_ mæants, Armenian; _einander_, Germ.; _one_ another, Engl.

_b._ By _each_, or some equivalent term, in English, Dutch, and the Scandinavian languages--_each_ other, English; _elkander_, Dutch; _hver_andre, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish.

_c._ By _this_, or some equivalent term, in Swedish and Danish (_hin_anden); in Lithuanic (_kitts_ kittâ), and in Lettish (_zitts_ zittu).

_d._ By _other_, or some equivalent term, in Greek and Armenian; ἁλλήλους, _ir_ærats.

_e._ By _man_, used in an indefinite sense and compounded with _lik_ in Dutch, _malk_ander (mal-lik manlik).

_f._ By a term equivalent to _mate_ or _fellow_ in Laplandic--_gòim_ gòimeme.--Rask, 'Lappisk Sproglære,' p. 102. Stockfleth, 'Grammatik,' p. 109.

2. _a._ In the expression of the object the current term is _other_ or some equivalent word. Of this the use is even more constant than that of _one_ expressive of the subject--l'un l'_autre_, French; uno _otro_, Spanish; ἁλλήλους, Greek; geden _druheho_, Bohemian; ieden _drugiego_, Polish; weens _ohtru_, Lettish; iræ_rats_, Armenian; ein_ander_, German; each _other_, one an_other_, English.

_b._ In Lithuanic the term in use is _one_; as, wiens _wienâ_. The same is the case for a second form in the Armenian mi_mœa_n.

_c._ In Laplandic it is denoted in the same as the subject; as gòim _gòimeme_.

Undoubtedly there are other varieties of this general method of expression. Upon those already exhibited a few remarks, however, may be made.

1. In respect to languages like the French, Spanish, &c., where the two nouns, instead of coalescing, remain separate, each retaining its inflection, it is clear that they possess a greater amount of perspicuity; inasmuch as (to say nothing of the distinction of gender) the subject can be used in the singular number when the mutual action of two persons (_i. e._ of _one_ upon _another_) is spoken of, and in the plural when we signify that of more than two; e. g. _ils_ (_i. e._ A and B) _se battaient_--_l'un l'autre_: but _ils_ (A, B, C and D,) _se battaient_--_les uns les autres_. This degree of perspicuity might be attained in English and other allied languages by reducing to practice the difference between the words _each_ and _one_; in which case we might say _A and B struck one another_, but _A, B and C struck_ each _other_. In the Scandinavian languages this distinction is real; where _hin_anden is equivalent to _l'un l'autre_, French; _uno otro_, Spanish: whilst _hver_andre expresses _les uns les autres_, French; _unos otros_, Spanish. The same is the case in the Laplandic.--See Rask's Lappisk Sproglære, p. 102.

2. An analysis of such an expression as _they praise one another's_ (or _each other's_) _conduct_, will show the lax character of certain forms in the Swedish. Of the two pronouns it is only the latter that appears in an oblique case, and this necessarily; hence the Swedish form _hvarsannars_ is illogical. It is precisely what _one's another's_ would be in English, or ἄλλων ἄλλων for ἁλλήλων in Greek. The same applies to the M. H. G. _einen anderen_. D. G. iii. 83.

3. The term expressive of the object appears in three forms, viz. preceded by the definite article (l'un _l_'autre), by the indefinite article (one _an_other), and finally, standing alone (each other, einander). Of these three forms the first is best suited for expressing the reciprocal action of two persons (one out of two struck the other); whilst the second or third is fittest for signifying the reciprocal action of more than two (one out of many struck, and was struck by, some other).

The third general method of expressing mutual or reciprocal action is by the use of some particular form of the verb. In two, and probably more, of the African languages (the Woloff and Bechuana) this takes place. In the Turkish there is also a reciprocal form: as _sui-mek_, to love; _baki-mek_, to look; _sui-sh-mek_, to love one another; _baki-sh-mek_, to look at one another; _su-il-mek_, to be loved; _sui-sh-il-mek_, to be loved mutually.--_David's Turkish Grammar._

The fourth form of expression gives the fact alluded to at the beginning of the paper: viz. an instrument of criticism in investigating the origin of certain deponent verbs. In all languages there is a certain number of verbs denoting actions, reciprocal or mutual to the agents. Such are the words _embrace_, _converse_, _strive against_, _wrestle_, _fight_, _rival_, _meet_, and several more. There are also other words where the existence of two parties is essential to the idea conveyed, and where the notion, if not that of reciprocal action, is akin to it; viz. _reproach_, _compromise_, _approach_, &c. Now in certain languages (the Latin and Greek) some of these verbs have a passive form; _i. e._ they are deponents,--_loquor_, _colloquor_, _luctor_, _reluctor_, _amplector_, _suavior_, _osculor_, _suspicor_, Latin: φιλοτιμέομαι, φιλοφρονέομαι, μάχομαι, διαλέγομαι, ἁλέομαι, διαλύομαι, ἁμείβομαι &c., Greek. Hence arises the hypothesis, that it is to their reciprocal power on the one hand, and to the connexion between the passive, reflective and reciprocal forms on the other, that these verbs owe their deponent character. The fact essential to the probability of this hypothesis is the connexion between the reflective forms and the reciprocal ones.

Now for one branch of languages this can be shown most satisfactorily. In Icelandic the middle voice is formed from the active by the addition of the reflective pronoun, _mik_, me, _sik_, him or self. Hence it is known by the terminations _mc_ and _sc_, and by certain modifications of these affixes, viz. _st_, _s_, _z_, _mz_, _ms_. In the oldest stage of the language the reflective power of the middle voice, to the exclusion of a passive sense, is most constant: _e. g. hann var nafnadr_ = he had the name given him; _hann nefnist_ = he gave as his name, or named himself. It was only when the origin of the middle form became indistinct that its sense became either passive or deponent; as it generally is in the modern tongues of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Now in the modern Scandinavian languages we have, on the one hand, certain deponent forms expressive of reciprocal action; whilst on the other we have, even in the very earliest stages of the Old Norse, middle or reflective forms used in a reciprocal sense. Of some of these, examples will be given: but the proof of their sense being reciprocal will not be equally conclusive in all. Some may perhaps be looked on as deponents (_ættust_, _beriast_, _skiliast_, _mödast_); whilst others may be explained away by the assumption of a passive construction (_fundoz_ = they were found, not they found each other). Whatever may be the case with the words taken from the middle and modern stages of the language, this cannot be entertained in regard to the examples drawn from the oldest Norse composition, the Edda of Sæmund. For this reason the extracts from thence are marked _Edd. Sæm._, and of these (and these alone) the writer has attempted to make the list exhaustive. The translations in Latin and Danish are those of the different editors.

1. Ættust, _fought each other_.

2. Beriaz, _strike each other_.

brödur muno _beriaz_. fratres invicem pugnabunt.

Voluspa, 41. Edd. Sæm.

This word is used in almost every page of the Sagas as a deponent signifying _to fight_: also in the Feroic dialect.

3. Bregþaz, _interchange_.

orþom at _bregþaz_. verba commutare.

Helga-Qviþa Hundlingsbana, i. 41. ii. 26. Edd. Sæm.

4. Drepiz, _kill one another_.

finnuz þeir báder daudir---- en ecki vapn höfþu þeir nema bitlana af hestinum, ok þat hygia menn at þeir (Alrek and Eirek) hafi _drepiz_ þar med. Sva segir Ðiodolfr.; "_Drepaz_ kvádu."--Heimskringla. Ynglinga-Saga, p. 23.

The brothers were found dead--and no weapons had they except the bits of their horses, and men think they (Alrek and Eirek) had _killed each other_ therewith. So says Thiodolf.: "They said that they _killed each other_."

5. Um-faþmaz, _embrace each other_. See Atla-Quiþa hin Grænslenzko, 42.--_Edd. Sæm._

6. Földes, _fell in with each other_.--Om morgonet effter _földes_ wy in Kobenhaffn.--Norwegian Letters in 1531, A. D. See Samlingar til det Norske Folks Sprog og Historie, I. 2. 70. The morning after we _fell in with each other_ in Copenhagen.

7. Funduz, _found each other_, _met_. See Vafþrudnis-mal 17.--Sigurd-Quiþ. i. 6. Edd. Sæm.--Fareyingar-Saga, p. 44. _Ðeir funduz_ is rendered _de fandt hverandre_ = _they found each other_, in Haldorsen's Lexic. Island.

ef iþ Gymer _finniz_. if you and Gymer meet. Harbards-l: 24. Edd. Sæm.

8. Gættuz, _consult each other_. See Voluspa, 6. 9. 21. 23. _Edd. Sæm._

9. Glediaz, _rejoice each other_.

vapnom ok vádom skulo vinir _glediaz_, þæt er á sialfom sæmst: vidr-géfendr ok endi gefendr _erost_ lengst vinir ef þat biþr at verþa vel. Rigsmal. 41.

armis ac vestibus amici _mutuo se delectent_, queîs in ipso (datore) forent conspicua: pretium renumerantes et remunerantes _inter se diutissime sunt_ amici si negotium feliciter se dat.

The middle form and reciprocal sense of _erost_ is remarkable in this passage.

10. Hauggvaz, _hack each other_, _fight_.

allir Einheriar Oþins túnom i _hauggvaz_ hverian dag.

all the Einheriar in Odin's towns _hack each other_ every day. Vafþrudnis-Mal. 41. Edd. Sæm.

ef þeir _högvaz_ orþom á. si se maledictis invicem insectentur. Sig-Qvið. ii. 1. Edd. Sæm.

11. Hættaz, _cease_.

_hættomc_ hættingi. _cessemus utrinque_ a minaciis. Harbardslióð, 51. Edd. Sæm.

Such is the translation of the editors, although the reciprocal power is not unequivocal.

12. Hittaz, _hit upon each other_, _meet_. Hittoz, Voluspa, 7. Hittomk, Hadding-skata, 22. Hittaz, Solar-l: 82. Edd. Sæm. Hittust, Ol. Trygv. Sag. p. 90. Hittuz oc beriaz, Heimskringla, Saga Halfd. Svart. p. 4. Hittuz, Yngl. Sag. p. 42. _alibi passim þeir hittu_ is rendered, in Bjorn Haldorsen's Islandic Lexicon, _de traf hinanden_, _they hit upon each other_.

13. Kiempis, _fight each other_,

gaar udi gaarden oc _kiempis_, oc nelegger hver hinanden, goes out in the house and _fight each the other_, and each knocks down the other.

Such is the translation by Resenius, in modern Danish, of the following extract from Snorro's _Edda_, p. 34.--Ganga ut i gardinn og _beriast_, og fellar huor annar. Here the construction is not, _they fell_ (or knock down) _each the other_, but _each fells the other_; since _fellar_ and _nelegger_ are singular forms.

14. Mælast, _talk to each other_, _converse_. Talast, _ditto_.

_Mæliz_ þu. Vafþrudnismal, 9.

_melomc_ i sessi saman = colloquamur sedentes. ib. 19. Edd. Sæm.

_mælast_ þeir _vid_, ádr þeir _skiliast_, at þeir mundi þar _finnast_ þa,--Fóstbrædra-Saga, p. 7.

they _said to each other_ before they _parted from each other_ that they should _meet each other_ there.

Yngvi ok Bera satu ok _töluduz_ vidr.--Heimskr. Yngl. S. p. 24.

Griss mælti; hverír ero þessir menn er sva _tulast vid_ bliðliga? Avàldi svarar; þa er Hallfreydr Ottarson ok Kolfinna dóthir min. Ol. Trygyv. Saga, p. 152. Griss said, who are these persons who _talk together_ so blithely? Avaldi answers, they are Halfrid Ottarson and Kolfinna my daughter. _Talast_ is similarly used in Feroic. _Kvödust_, bespoke each other, occurs in the same sense--þat var einn dag at Brand ok Finbogi _fundust_ ok _kvödust_ blídliga.--Vatnsdæla-Sag. p. 16.

15. Mettæst, _meet each other_, _meet_.

Kungen aff Ffranchriche, kungen aff England, oc kungen aff Schottland skule _motes_ til Chalis.--Letter from Bergen in 1531, from Samlinger til det Norske Folks Sprog og Historie, i. 2. p. 53. The king of France, the king of England, and the king of Scotland should _meet each other_ at Calais.

Throughout the Danish, Swedish and Feroic, this verb is used as a deponent.

16. Rekaz, _vex each other_.

gumnar margir _erosc_ gagn-hollir, enn at virþi _rekaz_. Rigsmal. 32. Edd. Sæm.

multi homines _sunt inter se_ admodum benevoli, sed tamen _mutuo se_ (vel) in convivio _exagitant_.

17. Sakaz, _accuse each other_, _recriminate_.

at vit mynim siafrum _sacaz_, ut nos ipsi mutuo insectemur. Hamdis-Mal. 28.

ef viþ einir scolom sáryrþom _sacaz_. si nobis duobus usu veniat amarulentis dicteriis invicem nos lacessere. Ægis-drecka, 5.

sculoþ inni her sáryrþom _sacaz_. Ibid. 19. Edd. Sæm.

18. Saz, _looked at each other_.

_saz_ i augv fadir ok módir. Rigsmal. 24.

they looked at each other in the eyes, father and mother.

19. Sættaz, _settle between each other_, _reconcile_.--Atla-Mal. 45. Edd. Sæm.

Komu vinir þveggia þvi vid, at þeir _sættuz_, ok lögdu konungar stefnu med _sér_, ok _hittuz_ ok gérdo frit mellum sin.--Heimsk. Yngling-S. 42.

There came friends of both in order that they should be _reconciled_, and the kings sent messages between them, and _met_ and made peace between them.--Also Vatnsd. S. p. 16.

20. Seljas, _to give to each other_.

_seldz_ eiþa. Sig. Qv. iii. 1. Edd. Sæm.

juramenta dederunt inter se.

21. Sendaz, _send, or let pass between each other_.

sato samtýnis, _senduz_ fár-hugi, _henduz_ heipt-yrþi hvarki _sér_ undi. Atla-Mal. 85.

They sat in the same town (dwelling), They _sent between each other_ danger-thoughts, They _fetched between each other_ hate-words, Not _either way_ did they love _each other_.

Here, over and above the use of _senduz_ and _henduz_, _ser_ is equivalent to _hinanden_.

22. Skiliaz, _part from each other_.

_Skiliumz._ Solar-Lioð. 82. _Skiliaz._ Sigurd-Qviþ. i. 24. _Skiliomc._ Ibid. 53. Edd. Sæm. Vit _sjiljiast, we two part_--

Occurs in the poem Brinilda (st. 109) in the Feroic dialect. In Danish and Swedish the word is deponent.

23. Skiptust, _interchange_.

Ðeir _skiptust_ mörgum giöfum _vid_ um vetrinn--Vatns-dæla-S. 10. they _made interchanges with each other_ with many gifts for the winter.

Also in the Feroic.

24. Strujast, _strike one another_, _fight_. Feroic.

og _mötast_ tair, og _strujast_ avlaji lanji.--Fareying-Sag. 18. Feroic text.

ok _mætast_ þeir, ok berjast mjök leingi.--Icelandish text.

de _mödtes_ og strede meget længe imod hinanden.--Danish text.

they _met_ and _fought_ long against _each other_.

at e vilde vid _gjordust_ stålbröir, og _strujast_ ikkji longur.--Feroic text, p. 21.

at við _gerðimst_ fèlagar, en _berjumst_ eigi leingr.--Icelandic text.

at vi skulle blive Stalbröde og ikke _slaaes_ længer--Danish text.

that we should become comrades and not _fight_ longer.

The active form occurs in the same dialect:

_tajr struija nú langji._ 18.

25. Truasc, _trust each other_.

vel mættern þæir _truazc_. För Skirnis. Edd. Sæm.

26. Unnaz. _See_ Veittaz.

27. Vegiz, _attack_ each _other_.

vilcat ec at iþ reiþir _vegiz_. Ægisdrecka 18. Edd. Sæm. I will not that ye two angry _attack each other_.

28. Veittaz, _contract mutually_.

þav Helgi ok Svava _veittuz_ varar, ok _unnoz_ forþo mikit = Helgius et Svava pactum sponsalitium _inter se contraxerunt_, et _alter alterum_ mirifice _amarunt_.--Haddingia-Sk. between 29 and 30.

29. Verpaz, _throw between each other_.

_urpuz_ á orþom. Atl.-M. 39. Edd. Sæm.

verba inter se jaciebant.

Such is a portion of the examples that prove the reciprocal power of the reflective or middle verb in the language of Scandinavia; and that, during all its stages and in each of its derived dialects. It cannot be doubted that to this circumstance certain verbs in Danish and Swedish owe their deponent form: viz. _vi slåss_, we fight (strike one another); _vi brottas_, we wrestle; _vi omgass_, we have intercourse with; _vi mötas_, we meet, Swedish; _vi slaaes_, we fight; _vi skilles_, we part; _vi mödes_, we meet, Danish. In the latest Swedish grammar, by C. L. Daae, this reciprocal (vekselvirkende) power is recognized and exhibited. See Udsigt over det Svenske Sprogs Grammatik. Christiana, 1837. The same is the Molbech's Danske Ordbog in vv. _skilles_, _slaaes_, _mödes_.

Next to the Norse languages the French affords the best instances of the reciprocal power of the reflective verb; as _se battre_, _s'aimer_, _s'entendre_, _se quéreller_, _se reconcilier_, _se disputer_, and other words of less frequent occurrence.

Ces enfans _s'aimaient_, _s'adoraient_, se sont jetés à mes pieds en pleurant.--Les Inséparables, A. 1. S. 1.

Les Républics Italiens acharnés à _se détruire_.--Pardessus II. 65.

This has been recognized by an old grammarian, Restaut, who insists upon the use of the adverb _entre_, in order to avoid the ambiguity of such phrases as "vous _vous_ dites des injures;" "nous _nous_ écrivons souvent;" "Pierre et Antoine _se_ louent à tout moment."

By a writer in the Museum Criticum the reciprocal power of the Greek middle has been indicated. For the classical languages the question has not met with the proper investigation. Passages where the sense is at least as reciprocal as in the line

Χεῖρος τ' ἁλλήλων λαβήτην καὶ μιστώσαντο.--Il. vi. 233,

must be numerous.

In the Dutch language the use of _zich_ for _elkander_ is a peculiarity of the Guelderland and Overyssel dialects; as "zij hebt _zich_ eslagen," for "zij hebben _elkander_ geslagen." See Opmerkingen omtrent den Gelderschen Tongval, in Taalkundig Magazijn ii. 14. p. 403.

Of the use of _ser_ for _hinanden_ or _hverandre_, when uncombined with the verb, we have, amongst other, the following example in the Icelandic version of the Paradise Lost:--