Part 16

_Whiteness_, if most intense and luminous, is that of the first Order, if less strong and luminous, a Mixture of the Colours of several Orders. Of this last kind is the Whiteness of Froth, Paper, Linnen, and most white Substances; of the former I reckon that of white Metals to be. For whilst the densest of Metals, Gold, if foliated, is transparent, and all Metals become transparent if dissolved in Menstruums or vitrified, the Opacity of white Metals ariseth not from their Density alone. They being less dense than Gold would be more transparent than it, did not some other Cause concur with their Density to make them opake. And this Cause I take to be such a Bigness of their Particles as fits them to reflect the white of the first order. For, if they be of other Thicknesses they may reflect other Colours, as is manifest by the Colours which appear upon hot Steel in tempering it, and sometimes upon the Surface of melted Metals in the Skin or Scoria which arises upon them in their cooling. And as the white of the first order is the strongest which can be made by Plates of transparent Substances, so it ought to be stronger in the denser Substances of Metals than in the rarer of Air, Water, and Glass. Nor do I see but that metallick Substances of such a Thickness as may fit them to reflect the white of the first order, may, by reason of their great Density (according to the Tenor of the first of these Propositions) reflect all the Light incident upon them, and so be as opake and splendent as it's possible for any Body to be. Gold, or Copper mix'd with less than half their Weight of Silver, or Tin, or Regulus of Antimony, in fusion, or amalgamed with a very little Mercury, become white; which shews both that the Particles of white Metals have much more Superficies, and so are smaller, than those of Gold and Copper, and also that they are so opake as not to suffer the Particles of Gold or Copper to shine through them. Now it is scarce to be doubted but that the Colours of Gold and Copper are of the second and third order, and therefore the Particles of white Metals cannot be much bigger than is requisite to make them reflect the white of the first order. The Volatility of Mercury argues that they are not much bigger, nor may they be much less, lest they lose their Opacity, and become either transparent as they do when attenuated by Vitrification, or by Solution in Menstruums, or black as they do when ground smaller, by rubbing Silver, or Tin, or Lead, upon other Substances to draw black Lines. The first and only Colour which white Metals take by grinding their Particles smaller, is black, and therefore their white ought to be that which borders upon the black Spot in the Center of the Rings of Colours, that is, the white of the first order. But, if you would hence gather the Bigness of metallick Particles, you must allow for their Density. For were Mercury transparent, its Density is such that the Sine of Incidence upon it (by my Computation) would be to the Sine of its Refraction, as 71 to 20, or 7 to 2. And therefore the Thickness of its Particles, that they may exhibit the same Colours with those of Bubbles of Water, ought to be less than the Thickness of the Skin of those Bubbles in the Proportion of 2 to 7. Whence it's possible, that the Particles of Mercury may be as little as the Particles of some transparent and volatile Fluids, and yet reflect the white of the first order.

Lastly, for the production of _black_, the Corpuscles must be less than any of those which exhibit Colours. For at all greater sizes there is too much Light reflected to constitute this Colour. But if they be supposed a little less than is requisite to reflect the white and very faint blue of the first order, they will, according to the 4th, 8th, 17th and 18th Observations, reflect so very little Light as to appear intensely black, and yet may perhaps variously refract it to and fro within themselves so long, until it happen to be stifled and lost, by which means they will appear black in all positions of the Eye without any transparency. And from hence may be understood why Fire, and the more subtile dissolver Putrefaction, by dividing the Particles of Substances, turn them to black, why small quantities of black Substances impart their Colour very freely and intensely to other Substances to which they are applied; the minute Particles of these, by reason of their very great number, easily overspreading the gross Particles of others; why Glass ground very elaborately with Sand on a Copper Plate, 'till it be well polish'd, makes the Sand, together with what is worn off from the Glass and Copper, become very black: why black Substances do soonest of all others become hot in the Sun's Light and burn, (which Effect may proceed partly from the multitude of Refractions in a little room, and partly from the easy Commotion of so very small Corpuscles;) and why blacks are usually a little inclined to a bluish Colour. For that they are so may be seen by illuminating white Paper by Light reflected from black Substances. For the Paper will usually appear of a bluish white; and the reason is, that black borders in the obscure blue of the order described in the 18th Observation, and therefore reflects more Rays of that Colour than of any other.

In these Descriptions I have been the more particular, because it is not impossible but that Microscopes may at length be improved to the discovery of the Particles of Bodies on which their Colours depend, if they are not already in some measure arrived to that degree of perfection. For if those Instruments are or can be so far improved as with sufficient distinctness to represent Objects five or six hundred times bigger than at a Foot distance they appear to our naked Eyes, I should hope that we might be able to discover some of the greatest of those Corpuscles. And by one that would magnify three or four thousand times perhaps they might all be discover'd, but those which produce blackness. In the mean while I see nothing material in this Discourse that may rationally be doubted of, excepting this Position: That transparent Corpuscles of the same thickness and density with a Plate, do exhibit the same Colour. And this I would have understood not without some Latitude, as well because those Corpuscles may be of irregular Figures, and many Rays must be obliquely incident on them, and so have a shorter way through them than the length of their Diameters, as because the straitness of the Medium put in on all sides within such Corpuscles may a little alter its Motions or other qualities on which the Reflexion depends. But yet I cannot much suspect the last, because I have observed of some small Plates of Muscovy Glass which were of an even thickness, that through a Microscope they have appeared of the same Colour at their edges and corners where the included Medium was terminated, which they appeared of in other places. However it will add much to our Satisfaction, if those Corpuscles can be discover'd with Microscopes; which if we shall at length attain to, I fear it will be the utmost improvement of this Sense. For it seems impossible to see the more secret and noble Works of Nature within the Corpuscles by reason of their transparency.

PROP. VIII.

_The Cause of Reflexion is not the impinging of Light on the solid or impervious parts of Bodies, as is commonly believed._

This will appear by the following Considerations. First, That in the passage of Light out of Glass into Air there is a Reflexion as strong as in its passage out of Air into Glass, or rather a little stronger, and by many degrees stronger than in its passage out of Glass into Water. And it seems not probable that Air should have more strongly reflecting parts than Water or Glass. But if that should possibly be supposed, yet it will avail nothing; for the Reflexion is as strong or stronger when the Air is drawn away from the Glass, (suppose by the Air-Pump invented by _Otto Gueriet_, and improved and made useful by Mr. _Boyle_) as when it is adjacent to it. Secondly, If Light in its passage out of Glass into Air be incident more obliquely than at an Angle of 40 or 41 Degrees it is wholly reflected, if less obliquely it is in great measure transmitted. Now it is not to be imagined that Light at one degree of obliquity should meet with Pores enough in the Air to transmit the greater part of it, and at another degree of obliquity should meet with nothing but parts to reflect it wholly, especially considering that in its passage out of Air into Glass, how oblique soever be its Incidence, it finds Pores enough in the Glass to transmit a great part of it. If any Man suppose that it is not reflected by the Air, but by the outmost superficial parts of the Glass, there is still the same difficulty: Besides, that such a Supposition is unintelligible, and will also appear to be false by applying Water behind some part of the Glass instead of Air. For so in a convenient obliquity of the Rays, suppose of 45 or 46 Degrees, at which they are all reflected where the Air is adjacent to the Glass, they shall be in great measure transmitted where the Water is adjacent to it; which argues, that their Reflexion or Transmission depends on the constitution of the Air and Water behind the Glass, and not on the striking of the Rays upon the parts of the Glass. Thirdly, If the Colours made by a Prism placed at the entrance of a Beam of Light into a darken'd Room be successively cast on a second Prism placed at a greater distance from the former, in such manner that they are all alike incident upon it, the second Prism may be so inclined to the incident Rays, that those which are of a blue Colour shall be all reflected by it, and yet those of a red Colour pretty copiously transmitted. Now if the Reflexion be caused by the parts of Air or Glass, I would ask, why at the same Obliquity of Incidence the blue should wholly impinge on those parts, so as to be all reflected, and yet the red find Pores enough to be in a great measure transmitted. Fourthly, Where two Glasses touch one another, there is no sensible Reflexion, as was declared in the first Observation; and yet I see no reason why the Rays should not impinge on the parts of Glass, as much when contiguous to other Glass as when contiguous to Air. Fifthly, When the top of a Water-Bubble (in the 17th Observation,) by the continual subsiding and exhaling of the Water grew very thin, there was such a little and almost insensible quantity of Light reflected from it, that it appeared intensely black; whereas round about that black Spot, where the Water was thicker, the Reflexion was so strong as to make the Water seem very white. Nor is it only at the least thickness of thin Plates or Bubbles, that there is no manifest Reflexion, but at many other thicknesses continually greater and greater. For in the 15th Observation the Rays of the same Colour were by turns transmitted at one thickness, and reflected at another thickness, for an indeterminate number of Successions. And yet in the Superficies of the thinned Body, where it is of any one thickness, there are as many parts for the Rays to impinge on, as where it is of any other thickness. Sixthly, If Reflexion were caused by the parts of reflecting Bodies, it would be impossible for thin Plates or Bubbles, at one and the same place, to reflect the Rays of one Colour, and transmit those of another, as they do according to the 13th and 15th Observations. For it is not to be imagined that at one place the Rays which, for instance, exhibit a blue Colour, should have the fortune to dash upon the parts, and those which exhibit a red to hit upon the Pores of the Body; and then at another place, where the Body is either a little thicker or a little thinner, that on the contrary the blue should hit upon its pores, and the red upon its parts. Lastly, Were the Rays of Light reflected by impinging on the solid parts of Bodies, their Reflexions from polish'd Bodies could not be so regular as they are. For in polishing Glass with Sand, Putty, or Tripoly, it is not to be imagined that those Substances can, by grating and fretting the Glass, bring all its least Particles to an accurate Polish; so that all their Surfaces shall be truly plain or truly spherical, and look all the same way, so as together to compose one even Surface. The smaller the Particles of those Substances are, the smaller will be the Scratches by which they continually fret and wear away the Glass until it be polish'd; but be they never so small they can wear away the Glass no otherwise than by grating and scratching it, and breaking the Protuberances; and therefore polish it no otherwise than by bringing its roughness to a very fine Grain, so that the Scratches and Frettings of the Surface become too small to be visible. And therefore if Light were reflected by impinging upon the solid parts of the Glass, it would be scatter'd as much by the most polish'd Glass as by the roughest. So then it remains a Problem, how Glass polish'd by fretting Substances can reflect Light so regularly as it does. And this Problem is scarce otherwise to be solved, than by saying, that the Reflexion of a Ray is effected, not by a single point of the reflecting Body, but by some power of the Body which is evenly diffused all over its Surface, and by which it acts upon the Ray without immediate Contact. For that the parts of Bodies do act upon Light at a distance shall be shewn hereafter.

Now if Light be reflected, not by impinging on the solid parts of Bodies, but by some other principle; it's probable that as many of its Rays as impinge on the solid parts of Bodies are not reflected but stifled and lost in the Bodies. For otherwise we must allow two sorts of Reflexions. Should all the Rays be reflected which impinge on the internal parts of clear Water or Crystal, those Substances would rather have a cloudy Colour than a clear Transparency. To make Bodies look black, it's necessary that many Rays be stopp'd, retained, and lost in them; and it seems not probable that any Rays can be stopp'd and stifled in them which do not impinge on their parts.

And hence we may understand that Bodies are much more rare and porous than is commonly believed. Water is nineteen times lighter, and by consequence nineteen times rarer than Gold; and Gold is so rare as very readily and without the least opposition to transmit the magnetick Effluvia, and easily to admit Quicksilver into its Pores, and to let Water pass through it. For a concave Sphere of Gold filled with Water, and solder'd up, has, upon pressing the Sphere with great force, let the Water squeeze through it, and stand all over its outside in multitudes of small Drops, like Dew, without bursting or cracking the Body of the Gold, as I have been inform'd by an Eye witness. From all which we may conclude, that Gold has more Pores than solid parts, and by consequence that Water has above forty times more Pores than Parts. And he that shall find out an Hypothesis, by which Water may be so rare, and yet not be capable of compression by force, may doubtless by the same Hypothesis make Gold, and Water, and all other Bodies, as much rarer as he pleases; so that Light may find a ready passage through transparent Substances.

The Magnet acts upon Iron through all dense Bodies not magnetick nor red hot, without any diminution of its Virtue; as for instance, through Gold, Silver, Lead, Glass, Water. The gravitating Power of the Sun is transmitted through the vast Bodies of the Planets without any diminution, so as to act upon all their parts to their very centers with the same Force and according to the same Laws, as if the part upon which it acts were not surrounded with the Body of the Planet, The Rays of Light, whether they be very small Bodies projected, or only Motion or Force propagated, are moved in right Lines; and whenever a Ray of Light is by any Obstacle turned out of its rectilinear way, it will never return into the same rectilinear way, unless perhaps by very great accident. And yet Light is transmitted through pellucid solid Bodies in right Lines to very great distances. How Bodies can have a sufficient quantity of Pores for producing these Effects is very difficult to conceive, but perhaps not altogether impossible. For the Colours of Bodies arise from the Magnitudes of the Particles which reflect them, as was explained above. Now if we conceive these Particles of Bodies to be so disposed amongst themselves, that the Intervals or empty Spaces between them may be equal in magnitude to them all; and that these Particles may be composed of other Particles much smaller, which have as much empty Space between them as equals all the Magnitudes of these smaller Particles: And that in like manner these smaller Particles are again composed of others much smaller, all which together are equal to all the Pores or empty Spaces between them; and so on perpetually till you come to solid Particles, such as have no Pores or empty Spaces within them: And if in any gross Body there be, for instance, three such degrees of Particles, the least of which are solid; this Body will have seven times more Pores than solid Parts. But if there be four such degrees of Particles, the least of which are solid, the Body will have fifteen times more Pores than solid Parts. If there be five degrees, the Body will have one and thirty times more Pores than solid Parts. If six degrees, the Body will have sixty and three times more Pores than solid Parts. And so on perpetually. And there are other ways of conceiving how Bodies may be exceeding porous. But what is really their inward Frame is not yet known to us.

PROP. IX.

_Bodies reflect and refract Light by one and the same power, variously exercised in various Circumstances._

This appears by several Considerations. First, Because when Light goes out of Glass into Air, as obliquely as it can possibly do. If its Incidence be made still more oblique, it becomes totally reflected. For the power of the Glass after it has refracted the Light as obliquely as is possible, if the Incidence be still made more oblique, becomes too strong to let any of its Rays go through, and by consequence causes total Reflexions. Secondly, Because Light is alternately reflected and transmitted by thin Plates of Glass for many Successions, accordingly as the thickness of the Plate increases in an arithmetical Progression. For here the thickness of the Glass determines whether that Power by which Glass acts upon Light shall cause it to be reflected, or suffer it to be transmitted. And, Thirdly, because those Surfaces of transparent Bodies which have the greatest refracting power, reflect the greatest quantity of Light, as was shewn in the first Proposition.

PROP. X.

_If Light be swifter in Bodies than in Vacuo, in the proportion of the Sines which measure the Refraction of the Bodies, the Forces of the Bodies to reflect and refract Light, are very nearly proportional to the densities of the same Bodies; excepting that unctuous and sulphureous Bodies refract more than others of this same density._

Let AB represent the refracting plane Surface of any Body, and IC a Ray incident very obliquely upon the Body in C, so that the Angle ACI may be infinitely little, and let CR be the refracted Ray. From a given Point B perpendicular to the refracting Surface erect BR meeting with the refracting Ray CR in R, and if CR represent the Motion of the refracted Ray, and this Motion be distinguish'd into two Motions CB and BR, whereof CB is parallel to the refracting Plane, and BR perpendicular to it: CB shall represent the Motion of the incident Ray, and BR the Motion generated by the Refraction, as Opticians have of late explain'd.

Now if any Body or Thing, in moving through any Space of a given breadth terminated on both sides by two parallel Planes, be urged forward in all parts of that Space by Forces tending directly forwards towards the last Plane, and before its Incidence on the first Plane, had no Motion towards it, or but an infinitely little one; and if the Forces in all parts of that Space, between the Planes, be at equal distances from the Planes equal to one another, but at several distances be bigger or less in any given Proportion, the Motion generated by the Forces in the whole passage of the Body or thing through that Space shall be in a subduplicate Proportion of the Forces, as Mathematicians will easily understand. And therefore, if the Space of activity of the refracting Superficies of the Body be consider'd as such a Space, the Motion of the Ray generated by the refracting Force of the Body, during its passage through that Space, that is, the Motion BR, must be in subduplicate Proportion of that refracting Force. I say therefore, that the Square of the Line BR, and by consequence the refracting Force of the Body, is very nearly as the density of the same Body. For this will appear by the following Table, wherein the Proportion of the Sines which measure the Refractions of several Bodies, the Square of BR, supposing CB an unite, the Densities of the Bodies estimated by their Specifick Gravities, and their Refractive Power in respect of their Densities are set down in several Columns.