Part 2

But let us suppose that the point we wish to reach is directly North. If we continue sailing on this Northwest tack we can never reach it. In order to do so we must have the boat move in another direction. Four points, or forty-five degrees, on the other side of North is the direction Northeast. If our boat will fill her sail with a North wind when pointed Northwest she will also necessarily fill it when pointed Northeast. But how are we to get her into a position so that she will point Northeast? By performing a maneuvre which is called _tacking_ or _going about_.

To do this we put the helm down, or a-lee--that is, push the tiller toward the side on which the sail is, the rudder going in the opposite direction. In consequence of this the boat's bow begins to move toward the North. As it does so the wind leaves the sail, the canvas shakes, and then as her head swings past North the sail begins to fill again, with the breeze on the opposite side, until when she at last points Northeast it is rap full once more. That is what is called tacking a vessel.

If we continue to tack, remaining for an equal distance on each board or leg, the boat will gradually approach the North point by a zig-zag movement, until she reaches it.

Sometimes, owing to the wind not being directly ahead, we are able to remain longer on one tack than on the other. This is what is called making a long and short leg.

To properly sail a boat on the wind requires constant and minute attention to the helm and the canvas. The best way for the new hand is to sit low down in the cockpit to leeward of the tiller; this places him nearly under the boom. Let him look up and watch his sail just at the throat; here is where it will shake first. To sail the boat close he must just keep that portion of the sail shaking--or lifting as it is termed. After a few days at this work he will get so that he can tell instinctively by the feel of the boat just where she is, and will be able to keep her close without constantly watching the luff. Some skippers sail a boat by the jib luff, sitting to windward to see it; others by the feel of the wind on the face. This is a good guide at night when you cannot see the sail. But those things will come to the novice in time.

You should constantly practice altering the sheets of your boat, until you find out under which trim she goes best. You can mark the positions of the sheets by inserting between the strands of the rope a bit of colored worsted; also alter the position of the weights, either ballast or live, until you get the boat to her proper trim, as this has much to do with a boat sailing well to windward.

If when trimmed to sail on the wind a boat shows herself to be hard on the helm it may be the result of her form, of the position of her ballast, or centerboard, or through having too much after sail. If she gripes--that is, tries to go up in the wind--slack off a little mainsheet, and if she has a jib trim it flatter. If she tries to do the other thing run off to leeward; ease the jib sheets. The worst fault a boat can have is that of carrying a lee helm. Never buy a slack-headed boat; they are an abomination.

In rough-water sailing a boat going to windward wants her sheet eased. Do not trim the sails dead flat, nor try to sail the boat very close to the wind; give her what is called a _good full_, and keep her moving all the time. Remember, that every wave is a hill that the boat has to climb over, and she needs all the drive possible in order to do it. You must learn how to help her with the helm to take these seas easily, first by luffing and then by bearing away.

A man can only become a good windward helmsman by constant practice and by paying attention to every detail. He must have a quick eye, a firm hand and plenty of grit and strength.

_SAILING OFF THE WIND_

Sailing off the wind, or going free, is a different action from that of sailing on the wind. Sailing free is purely a natural movement, complicated by the fact that a vessel, owing to her weight obliging her to rest in the water, cannot move as freely as a fabric wholly sustained by the air. The fact that friction of the water retards her so that she moves at a less speed than the wind that presses her onward permits of her being steered. Another complication that effects the speed of a vessel going free is the unevenness of the water, the effect of the wind raising surface waves; these greatly retard and hamper her movements. If, instead of rising in waves the sea remained smooth a sailing vessel could be driven nearly as fast as the wind moves, as is the case with ice boats, which on smooth ice move as fast as the wind.

In sailing to windward the faster a vessel moves the more pressure the wind exerts upon her sail. In sailing to leeward this is just the reverse; the faster she goes the less pressure the wind exerts. In the first action she is constantly approaching the source of the wind, in the second receding from it. For instance, if the wind is blowing at the rate of 20 miles an hour and a vessel sailing before it makes 10 miles an hour the pressure in her sails will only be equal to a rate of 10 miles. In calculating how much sail to carry the young yachtsman must remember this: That a windward breeze is nearly double the wind's velocity, that a leeward breeze is equal to the wind's velocity minus the boat's speed; so that more sail can be carried off the wind that can be carried on it.

The amount of sail that can be carried off the wind depends largely upon the form of the boat and the height and action of the sea. If the boat is of a good form for running and the water smooth you can carry all the sail her spars will stand and she can be steered under. But if she is a bad runner, a boat that roots--goes down by the head--or chokes up forward, she will do better with less sail. On all boats there is a time when they reach their maximum speed running and when they will go along easier and better with less canvas. To do her best when running a boat should be kept on an even line--that is, level in the water, and not be allowed to shove her head up or drop her stern down.

In straight stem boats with very little fullness in the forward sections the weight of the crew should be kept aft, as they have a tendency to root--shove their bows down--but in boats with long, full overhangs the weights should be kept forward, as the shape of these craft causes them to shove out the bow and depress and drag the after end.

The most difficult helming of a boat is off the wind in a tall following sea, and great care is necessary then in steering a vessel. If the sea is very heavy and the wind strong do not try to run directly before it, but beat to leeward, first taking the wind on one quarter, and then on the other. If you run dead before, be careful not to let the boat sheer off the helm on either side, or she will be _brought by the lee_ or _broach to_. If she is brought by the lee her mainsail will jibe over.

You must watch your boat carefully, and you will soon learn to anticipate her next movement, first by noticing the wave that passes, and second by the feeling how she lifts on the one just overtaking her. As soon as the stern lifts she will begin to yaw, as it is called, and then you must at once check this movement by altering the position of the rudder to prevent her swinging too far. This is what is called _meeting her with the helm_.

One piece of advice when running before a sea: Never get frightened or rattled, and never look behind you, for the sight of a big sea curling up just ready to drop on the stern will scare any one but a hardened sea-dog. Always carry enough sail to keep the boat racing with the waves, or you are liable to get pooped. But do not carry too much sail, for if you do the boat when on top of a wave if struck, as she usually is in such position by a hard puff, is likely to become unmanageable and get away from you.

If you have a boat with a jib, set that and sheet it flat amidships; this when she tries to broach to will fill and drive her head off. If she steers hard trim your mainsheet aft and it will ease her. Lowering the peak and topping up the boom will also ease the steering. Always top up the boom if the sea is heavy, so as to prevent the end of the spar striking the water. Never in heavy weather square the main boom right off; always keep it away from the rigging.

The light sails commonly employed off the wind are the spinnaker and balloon jib. The former is of very little use except with the wind dead aft--that is, directly behind. The moment you have to guy the boom forward to make it draw it loses its power and the balloon jib is a better sail to use. Do not have these sails cut too large, as they are then unhandy and cannot be kept properly sheeted. Never sheet running sails down hard; give them plenty of lift, especially light jibs. A small spinnaker is a great help in steering a boat when running before a strong breeze.

_REEFING AND JIBING_

By reefing is meant the means by which a sail is reduced in size by rolling up and tying part of it down to a spar. The sail that you will have to reef is the mainsail, as the jib on a small boat is generally too little to be bothered with in that way. You will notice on a sail, stretching across it from luff to leach, a band, or sometimes two or three bands, in which are inserted short lengths of small line. This is the reef band, and the small lengths of rope are called points, or knittles. At either end of the band in the edge of the sail you will find a hole--or cringle, as it is called. The hole at the after end in the leach of the sail is for the pendant, a small rope that hauls the canvas aft or back towards the stern. The hole at the fore end in the luff of the sail is for the tack, a short length of rope that ties the luff of the sail down to the boom.

There are two ways of reefing. The first and easiest way, which can be performed when the boat is at anchor or lying to a dock, is to hoist the sail up until the reef band is as high as the boom; then take the tack and pass the ends round the boom, pass the ends back again through the cringle several times, if it will go, and then tie hard. Having the tack fast, haul out on the pendant, which should be rove through a beehole or cheek block on the boom; pull on this until the sail's foot is out taut, but do not pull until the cloth is strained. When the foot is out taut make the pendant fast; then take a short piece of rope and pass it round the boom and pendant just at the cringle and through that hole. Tie this down hard. This is called the _clew lashing_. Always put on a clew lashing, as it will save the sail from being torn.

Having the tack and pendant fast, begin to tie in the points. Get all the slack canvas on one side and roll it up tight; then pass one end of the reef point through _between the lacing and the sail, not round the boom_. Tie the point ends together with a bow knot, which is a reef knot with the loop caught in the tie. Pull all your points taut, but be sure and put the same strain on all. Begin to tie in the middle first, and then work toward both ends.

To shake out a reef reverse these operations. First untie the points, then the clew lashing, then slack in the pendant, and last cast loose the tack lashing. Be careful to untie all the points, because if you do not you are liable to tear the sail when hoisting it. Before shaking out a reef, if you have a topping lift fitted pull up on that so as to take the weight of the boom off the sail. If the air is damp, or rain or spray knocking about, don't haul the sail out very taut or tie the points down hard, as the wet will cause the rope and canvas to shrink and strain the sail out of shape. Never leave reefs tied in sail when stowed, as the canvas will mildew and rot.

Jibing is the operation of passing a boom sail over from one side of the boat to the other when sailing off the wind. A great deal of nonsense has been written and talked about jibing, and it is commonly supposed to be a very dangerous maneuvre. So it is, if carried out by incompetent persons or reckless fools in a bad boat, but if common sense and caution are used there is no danger whatever in jibing a sail at any time.

The first and most important thing is to keep control of the sheet, and to have as little of it out as possible when the sail goes over. In order to do this you must use the helm with great care to bring the boat slowly round. If it is blowing hard top up the boom and lower the peak; in this way you can always safely jibe.

To jibe: Haul in the sheet slowly but steadily, and when well aft carefully put the helm up until the wind strikes the fore side of the sail. As the boom swings across right the helm and then put it the other way, so as to catch the boat as she swings off.

If you have to jibe all standing--what is called a North River jibe--that is, with the sheet all off--just as soon as boom goes over put your helm hard the other way; this will throw the boat's head so the wind will strike the fore side of the sail and break the force of the swing. It is a very dangerous method, unless you are a skillful skipper, and should never be employed except in an emergency. Never jibe in a seaway with the sheet off; at such time it is better to lower the peak.

_TAKING CARE OF THE BOAT_

You must not only learn to sail, but you must learn to take care of your boat, to keep her neat and clean, and have everything above and below decks in shipshape order. Nothing looks worse than a slovenly kept and dirty yacht; a boat with fag ends of rope hanging about, loose and tangled messes of gear, sails not properly stowed, and a general air of untidiness apparent everywhere. The first attribute of good seamanship is order. Therefore, if you want to be considered a skillful sailor, keep your boat both above and below decks in shipshape fashion.

To do this means considerable work. It is no easy job to take proper care of even a small yacht, but if you regularly attend to the work you will find it come easier as you grow more familiar and used to the task. In the first place, the boat should be kept pumped out if she has a leak, as most boats have; next, her decks and cockpit should be thoroughly scrubbed and kept as clean as possible; the paint round the house and rails washed regularly, and her topsides looked to at least once a week.

Next, keep good watch over the gear; don't let the ends of the ropes get fagged out; keep them whipped. Always, after coming in from a sail, coil down and clear up all the ends of the gear. Keep your rodes and warps neatly coiled or Flemished, and not heaped in a tangled mass, thrown in any way. Take up on your tackles so that ropes don't swing loose, but be careful not to take up too hard, if you are not staying on the boat, because if dampness or rain sets in the rope will absorb the moisture and swell, causing it to contract and shrink lengthways. This not only is bad for the cordage, but in small vessels it frequently strains and distorts the spars.

If you have to leave your boat for several days with no one to care for her, do not stow your sails too tightly; roll them up loosely, and gasket so that they cannot shake out if it comes on to blow. If sails are furled in hard rolls the dampness in the canvas will cause them to sweat and rot; canvas to keep good wants the air. Sail covers are not good things to use, unless they are frequently removed, so as to let the air and sun get at the sails.

If your boat is rigged with metal blocks, turnbuckles, etc., these should be frequently oiled and greased, as should also the gooseneck and the jaws of the gaff. By keeping rust and verdigris off the working parts of these things you will increase their length of service and always have them in good working order. The steering gear, if you use a wheel, should be frequently inspected and oiled. If you use a tiller see that it is in good condition and not split or weakened where it is attached to the head of the rudder post. Steering gear accidents are more frequent than any others, and sometimes lead to disagreeable consequences.

The chain plates, and the shrouds where they go over the mast should be looked at, and also the bobstay and other headgear. Make a practice of going over your rigging at least once a week during the season, and you will be less likely to meet with any mishaps or accidents through something unexpectedly giving way.

Nothing looks better or reflects more credit on a young yacht sailor than to have his boat from truck to keel in first-class order. It is a certain sign that he understands his business, takes an interest in sport, and is a thorough and skilled sailorman. Of course, he cannot if he only spends, say, two days out of the week on board keep the boat up to the highest notch of completeness and order as a yacht is kept that carries a professional crew, but he can keep her neat and clean by giving a few hours of his time to the task. But to make the work easy let him refrain from covering his deck with brass or other fancy gewgaws. Stick to things that don't need polishing; the less brass the less work.

Another thing I would point out to you, and that is, when painting the decks or cockpit of a boat do not use light-colored paints. One reason for this is that a light color shows every speck of dirt and never can be made to look clean, especially if the boat is harbored in places where the water is muddy or dirty; the other reason is that light paint reflects the sun and is very trying on the eyes. For cockpit, decks and the top of cabin houses, use a dark shade of green, grey or slate; green is the best for the eyes.

_MANEUVERS_

TO TACK:

When ready to tack first put the helm up slightly so as to give the boat a good full, then put it down slowly and steadily. As the vessel's bow comes into the wind, right the helm, and then as she falls off catch her with the helm before she gets too far away from the wind. If the water is rough and the boat shows an inclination to miss-stay, give her a good full, slacking the sheet slightly to help her get headway, then as you put the helm down, haul in smartly on the sheet.

TO TACK A SLOOP:

A sloop or any rig carrying headsails can be tacked as follows: When ready to go about, ease the jib sheet, putting down the helm at the same time; as the boat's head comes into the wind, haul in the same sheet that you just eased, so as to get that sail aback; as she swings off slack the weather sheet and haul aft the lee one.

TO TACK A YAWL:

Proceed same as for tacking a sloop, but to aid her haul dead-flat the mizzen before putting the helm down. In a light air and a lob of sea when a yawl refuses to go round, you can sometimes cause her to stay by lighting up the jib and hauling the mizzen boom up on the weather side.

TACKING SMALL BOATS:

Small open boats such as dingeys and skiffs which are slow at staying can be materially helped by moving the weight of the crew forward as they come to the wind, and again aft as they fall off.

MISS-STAYING:

Our modern yachts unlike the old fashioned kind seldom miss-stay, except when attempted to tack in a heavy seaway. The cause of miss-staying is generally either carelessness or haste. Always give the boat a good full and have way on her before you put the helm down. If a boat miss-stay and get in irons do not jam the helm hard over, but keep it amidship until she gathers stern-way then move it over slowly. Remember that the helm when a boat is going stern first acts the opposite to what it does when she is going ahead. If a centerboard boat pull up the board. If she still refuses to fill, drop the peak.

TO WEAR:

Wearing or veering is the opposite of tacking. In a heavy sea when there is danger of a boat miss-staying it is better to wear. To wear, get your sheet in flat, then put the helm up slowly and as she pays-off, ease the sheet gradually. To wear a yawl ease off the mizzen, keep the mainsail flat, and haul the jib a-weather. In a centerboard boat haul up the board. In a catboat if she refuse to wear drop the peak.

TO ANCHOR:

The one prime rule of anchoring is never to let go the anchor until the boat has stopped going ahead and is beginning to go sternwards. In this way you prevent the anchor being turned over, and brought foul of the hawser. Always give an anchor plenty of line or scope as it is called. Six times the depth of water is sufficient under ordinary conditions. In bad weather give all you can spare.

TO GET UNDERWAY:

If at anchor before making sail heave in short on your hawser or chain, but be careful not to take in enough to trip the hook, then cast loose and hoist the sail, when ready heave in and break the anchor out of the bottom.

TO CAST:

To cast a vessel is to turn her head from an anchorage or mooring so as to make her go off on a chosen tack. This is sometimes necessary when anchored between other vessels or close to shore. Supposing it is necessary in order to clear to take the port tack: Haul your mainsail over to starboard, putting your helm the same way. This wall cause her to make a sternboard and her bow will fall off to port. A surer way if at a mooring is to pass a light line to the buoy; carry this aft outside of the rigging to the starboard quarter, then let go the mooring warp and haul in on the spring line. This will cause her head to pay off to port; when on the course let go the spring. To cast her to starboard reverse these proceedings.

_RULES OF THE ROAD_

The rules of the road are the rules governing the movements of vessels when underway. They are laws enacted by an agreement between all maritime nations, and obedience to them is compulsory. If in case of a collision, it is proved that one of the parties has violated a rule of the road, the damages lie against the violator. Yachtsmen should thoroughly learn and understand these rules, and should always maintain and obey them.

A _steam vessel_ is any vessel propelled by machinery--this includes naphtha, gasolene, kerosene and electric launches.

A _sailing vessel_ is a vessel wholly propelled by sails.

An _auxiliary_ yacht when using her engines, no matter whether she has sail set or not is a _steam vessel_. If not using her engine she is a sailing vessel.

Steam vessels must keep out of the way of sailing vessels; sailing vessels must keep out of the way of row-boats.

Vessels of all kinds, when underway, must keep clear of anchored craft or craft lying idle or hove-to.

Overtaking vessels must keep clear of vessels overtaken. A sailing vessel overtaking a launch must keep clear of the launch.

When two sailing vessels are approaching one another, so as to involve risk of collision, one of them shall keep out of the way of the other as follows:

A vessel which is running free shall keep out of the way of a vessel which is close-hauled.

A vessel which is close-hauled on the port tack shall keep out of the way of a vessel which is close-hauled on the starboard tack.

When both are running free, with the wind on different sides, the vessel which has the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of the other.

When both are running free, with the wind on the same side, the vessel which is to the windward shall keep out of the way of the vessel which is to the leeward.

A vessel which has the wind aft shall keep out of the way of the other vessel.

RUNNING LIGHTS.

A sailing vessel, when running at night, carries a green light on her starboard side, and a red light on her port side. Such lights are generally carried in the rigging, about six feet above the rail.

A rowboat must carry a white light in a lantern to show when in danger of being run down.

A steam vessel carries the same lights as a sailing vessel, with the addition of a white light at the foremast head, or on launches on top of the pilot house.