On the various forces of nature and their relations to each other
Part 9
You may ask, what is the use of this bright light? It would not be useful to us, were it not for the constant changes which are taking place in the atmosphere, which is never pure. Even when we can see the stars clearly on a bright night, it is not a pure atmosphere. The light of a light-house, more than any other, is liable to be dimmed by vapours and fogs; and where we most want this great power, is not in the finest condition of the atmosphere, but when the mariner is in danger--when the sleet and rain are falling, and the fogs arise, and the winds are blowing, and he is nearing coasts where the water is shallow, and abounds with rocks,--then is his time of danger, when he most wants this light. I am going to shew you how, by means of a little steam, I can completely obscure this glorious sun, this electric light which you see. The cloud now obscuring the light on the screen is only such a cloud as you see when sitting in a train on a fine summer’s day. You may observe that the vapour passing out of the funnel casts as deep a shadow on the ground as the black funnel; the very sun itself is extinguished by the steam from the funnel, so that it cannot give any light; and the sun itself, if set in the light-house, would not be able to penetrate such a vapour.
Now, the haze of this cloud of steam is just what we have to overcome, and the electric light is as soon, proportionally, extinguished by an obstruction of this kind as any other light. If we take two lights, one four times the intensity of the other, and we extinguish half of one by a vapour, we extinguish half of the other--and that is a fact which cannot be set aside by any arrangement. But, then, we fall back upon the _amount_ of light which the electric spark does give us in aid of the power of penetrating the fog; for the light of the electric spark shines so far at times, that even before it has arisen above the horizon, twenty-five miles off, it can be seen. This intense light has, therefore, that power which we can take advantage of,--of bearing a great deal of obstruction, before it is entirely obscured by fogs or otherwise.
Taking care that we do not lead our authorities into error by the advice given, we hope that we shall soon be able to recommend the Trinity House, from what has passed, to establish either one or more good electric lights in this country.
NOTES.
LECTURE I.
[1] Page 13. The opening lecture was twice postponed on account of Dr. Faraday’s illness.
[2] Page 22. _Platinum_, with one exception, the heaviest body known, is 21½ times heavier than water.
[3] Page 22. _Aluminium_ is 2½ times heavier than water.
[4] Pages 23 and 24. _Power or Property in Water._--This power--the heat by which the water is kept in a _fluid_ state--is said, under ordinary circumstances, to be _latent_ or _insensible_. When, however, the water changes its form, and, by uniting with the lime or sulphate of copper, becomes _solid_, the heat which retained it in a liquid state is evolved.
[5] Page 23. _Anhydrous Sulphate of Copper_: sulphate of copper deprived of its water of crystallisation. To obtain it, the blue sulphate is calcined in an earthen crucible.
[6] Page 29. _Add a little liquid to the marble, and decompose it._--Marble is composed of _carbonic acid_ and _lime_, and, in chemical language, is called _carbonate of lime_. When sulphuric acid is added to it, the carbonic acid is set free, and the sulphuric acid unites with the lime to form sulphate of lime.
_Carbonic acid_, under ordinary circumstances, is a colourless invisible gas, about half as heavy again as air. Dr. Faraday first shewed that, under great pressure, it could be obtained in a liquid state. Thilorier, a French chemist, afterwards found that it could be solidified.
LECTURE II.
[7] Page 55. _Crystallisation of Alum._--The solution must be saturated--that is, it must contain as much alum as can possibly be dissolved. In making the solution, it is best to add powdered alum to hot water as long as it dissolves; and when no more is taken up, allow the solution to stand a few minutes, and then pour it off from the dirt and undissolved alum.
[8] Page 57. _Red Precipitate of Biniodide of Mercury._--A little care is necessary to obtain this precipitate. The solution of potassium should be added to the solution of perchloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) very gradually. The red precipitate which first falls is redissolved when the liquid is stirred: when a little more of the iodide of potassium is added, a pale, red precipitate is formed, which, on the further addition of the iodide, changes into the brilliant scarlet biniodide of mercury. If too much iodide of potassium is added, the scarlet precipitate disappears, and a colourless solution is left.
[9] Page 57. _Paper Coated with Scarlet Biniodide of Mercury._--In order to fix the biniodide on paper, it must be mixed with a little weak gum water, and then spread over the paper, which must be dried without heat.
_Biniodide of Mercury_ is said to be _dimorphous_; that is, is able to assume two different forms.
[10] Page 59. “_Prince Rupert’s Drops._”-These are made by pouring drops of melted green glass into cold water. They were not, as is commonly supposed, invented by Prince Rupert, but were first brought to England by him, in 1660. They excited a great deal of curiosity, and were considered “a kind of miracle in nature.”
[11] Page 60. _Thick Glass Vessels._--They are called _Proofs_ or _Bologna phials_.
[12] Page 61. _Mica._--A silicate of alumina and magnesia. It has a bright metallic lustre--hence its name, from _mico_, to shine.
[13] Page 62. _Common salt_, or chloride of sodium, crystallises in the form of solid cubes, which, aggregated together, form a mass, which may be broken up into the separate cubes.
[14] Page 62. _Iceland_ or _Calc Spar_.--Native carbonate of lime in its primitive crystalline form.
LECTURE III.
[15] Page 79. _Solution of a Salt._--Acetate of soda. A solution saturated, or nearly so, at the boiling point, is necessary, and it must be allowed to cool, and remain at rest until the experiment is made.
[16] Page 86. _Binoxide of Nitrogen and Hypo-nitrous Acid._--Binoxide of nitrogen is formed when nitric acid and a little water are added to some copper turnings. It produces deep red fumes as soon as it comes in contact with the air, by combining with the oxygen of the latter to form hypo-nitrous acid. _Binoxide of nitrogen_ is composed of two parts oxygen and one part of nitrogen; _hypo-nitrous acid_ is composed of one part of nitrogen and three parts of oxygen.
LECTURE IV.
[17] Page 106. _Chlorate of Potash and Sulphuret of Antimony._--Great care must be taken in mixing these substances, as the mixture is dangerously explosive. They must be powdered separately, and mixed together with a feather on a sheet of paper, or by passing them several times through a small sieve.
[18] Page 107. The mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar does not require the same precautions. They may be rubbed together in a pestle and mortar without fear. One part of chlorate of potash and three parts of sugar will answer. The mixture need only be touched with a glass rod dipped in oil of vitriol.
[19] Page 107. _Two Salts Dissolved in Water._--Sulphate of soda and chloride of calcium. The solutions must be saturated for the experiment to succeed well.
[20] Page 111. _Lead Pyrophorous._--This is a tartrate of lead which has been heated in a glass tube to dull redness as long as vapours are emitted. As soon as they cease to be evolved, the end of the tube is sealed, and it is allowed to cool.
[21] Page 115. _Gun-Cotton_ is made by immersing cotton-wool in a mixture of sulphuric acid and the strongest nitric acid, or of sulphuric acid and nitrate of potash.
[22] Page 115. _Paper Prepared like Gun-Cotton._--It should be bibulous paper, and must be soaked for ten minutes in a mixture of ten parts by measure of oil of vitriol with five parts of strong fuming nitric acid. The paper must afterwards be thoroughly washed with warm distilled water, and then carefully dried at a gentle heat. The paper is then saturated with chlorate of strontia, or chlorate of baryta, or nitrate of copper, by immersion in a warm solution of these salts. (See _Chemical News_, Vol. I., page 36.)
LECTURE VI.
[23] Page 162. _Sulpho-indigotic Acid._--A mixture of one part of indigo and fifteen parts of concentrated oil of vitriol. It is bleached on the side at which hydrogen gas is evolved, in consequence of the liberated hydrogen withdrawing oxygen from the indigo, thereby forming a colourless deoxidised indigo. In making the experiment, only enough of the sulpho-indigotic acid must be added to give the water a decided blue colour.
[24] Page 164. _Lead Tree._--To make a lead tree, pass a bundle of brass wires through the cork of a bottle, and fasten a plate of zinc round them just as they issue from the cork, so that the zinc may be in contact with every one of the wires. Make the wires to diverge so as to form a sort of cone, and having filled the bottle quite full of a solution of sugar of lead, insert the wires and cork, and seal it down, so as to perfectly exclude the air. In a short time the metallic lead will begin to crystallise around the divergent wires, and form a beautiful object.
THE END.
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