Chapter 4

Chapter 43,751 wordsPublic domain

A large member of dedicatory inscriptions have come to light, which are dated from the year 5 to 98 of the era of the Indo-Skythian kings, Kanishka, Huvishka, and Vâsudeva (Bazodeo) and therefore belong at latest to the end of the first and to the second century A.D. They are all on the pedestals of statues, which are recognisable partly by the special mention of the names of Vardhamâna and the Arhat Mahâvíra, partly by absolute nudity and other marks. They show, that the Jaina community continued to flourish in Mathurâ and give besides extraordinarily important information, as I found in a renewed research into the ancient history of the sect. In a number of them, the dedicators of the statues give not only their own names, but also those of the religious teachers to whose communities they belonged. Further, they give these teachers their official titles, still used among the Jainas: _vâchaka_, 'teacher', and _gaṇin_, 'head of a school'. Lastly they specify the names of the schools to which the teachers belonged, and those of their subdivisions. The schools are called, _gaṇa_, 'companies'; the subdivisions, _kula_, 'families' and _śâkhà_, 'branches'. Exactly the same division into _gaṇa, śâkhà_, and _kula_ is found in a list in one of the canonical works, of the Śvetâmbaras, the _Kalpasûtra_, which gives the number of the patriarchs and of the schools founded by them, and it is of the highest importance, that, in spite of mutilation and faulty reproduction of the inscriptions, nine of the names, which appear in the _Kalpasûtra_ are recognisable in them, of which part agree exactly, part, through the fault of the stone-mason or wrong reading by the copyist, are somewhat defaced. According to the _Kalpasûtra_, Sushita, the ninth successor to Vardhamâna In the position of patriarch, together with his companion Supratibuddha, founded the 'Koḍiya' or 'Kautika _gaṇa_, which split up into four '_sâkhà_, and four '_kula_'. Inscription No. 4. which is dated in the year 9 of the king Kanishka or 87. A.D. (?) gives us a somewhat ancient form of the name of the _gaṇa Koṭiya_ and that of one of its branches exactly corresponding to the _Vairi śàkhâ_. Mutilated or wrongly written, the first word occurs also in inscriptions Nos. 2, 6 and 9 as _koto-, keṭṭiya_, and _ka_ ..., the second in No. 6 as _Vorâ_. One of the families of this _gaṇa_, the _Vâṇiya kula_ is mentioned in No. 6, and perhaps in No. 4. The name of a second, the _Praśnavàhaṇaka_, seems to have appeared in No. 19. The last inscription mentions also another branch of the Koṭiya gaṇa, the _Majhimâ sâkhâ_, which, according to the _Kalpasûtra,_ was founded by Priyagantha the second disciple of Susthita. Two still older schools which, according to tradition, sprang from the fourth disciple of the eighth patriarch, along with some of their divisions appear in inscriptions Nos. 20 and 10. These are the _Aryya-Udehikîya gaṇa_, called the school of the Ârya-Rohaṇa in the _Kalpasûtra_, to which belonged the _Parihâsaka kula_ and the _Pûrnapâtrikâ śâkhâ,_ as also the _Charâṇa gaṇa_ with the _Prîtidharmika kula._ Each of these names is, however, somewhat mutilated by one or more errata in writing. [Footnote: Dr. Bühler's long note (p. 48) on these inscriptions was afterwards expanded in the _Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes_ Bd. I, S. 165-180; Bd. II, S. 141-146. Bd. III, S. 233-240; and Bd. IV, S. 169-173. The argument of these papers is summarised in. Appendix. A, pp. 48 ff.—Ed.] The statements in the inscriptions about the teachers and their schools are of no small importance in themselves for the history of the Jainas. If, at the end of the first century A.D.(?) many separate schools of Jaina ascetics existed, a great age and lively activity, as well as great care as regards the traditions of the sect, may be inferred. The agreement of the inscriptions with the _Kalpasûtra_ leads still further however: it proves on the one side that the Jainas of Mathurâ were Śvetâmbara, and that the schism, which split the sect into two rival branches occurred long before the beginning of our era. On the other hand it proves that the tradition of the Svetâmbara really contains ancient historic elements, and by no means deserves to be looked upon with distrust. It is quite probable that, like all traditions, it is not altogether free from error. But it can no longer be declared to be the result of a later intentional misrepresentation, made in order to conceal the dependence of Jainism on Buddhism. It is no longer possible to dispute its authenticity with regard to those points which are confirmed by independent statements of other sects, and to assert, for example, that the Jaina account of the life of Vardhamâna, which agrees with the statements of the Buddists, proves nothing as regards the age of Jainism because in the late fixing of the canon of the Śvetâmbaras in the sixth century after Christ it may have been drawn from Buddhist works. Such an assertion which, under all circumstances, is a bold one, becomes entirely untenable when it is found that the tradition in question states correctly facts which lie not quite three centuries distant from Vardhamâna's time, and that the sect, long before the first century of our era kept strict account of their internal affairs. [Footnote: See Weber's and Barth's opinions quoted above in note I, p. 23.]

Unfortunately the testimony to the ancient history of the Jainas, so far as made known by means of inscriptions, terminates here. Interesting as it would be to follow the traces of their communities in the later inscriptions, which become so numerous from the fifth century A.D. onwards and in the description of his travels by Hiuen Tsiang, who found them spread through the whole of India and even beyond its boundaries, it would be apart from our purpose. The documents quoted suffice, however, to confirm the assertion that during the first five centuries after Buddha's death both the statements of Buddhist tradition and real historical sources give evidence to the existence of the Jainas as an important religious community independent of Buddhism, and that there are among the historical sources some which entirely clear away the suspicion that the tradition of the Jainas themselves is intentionally falsified.

The advantage gained for Indian history from the conclusion that Jainism and Buddhism are two contemporary sects—having arisen in the same district,—is no small one. First, this conclusion shows that the religious movement of the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. in eastern India must have been a profound one. If not only one, but certainly two, and perhaps more reformers, appeared at the same time, preaching teachers, who opposed the existing circumstances in the same manner, and each of whom gained no small number of followers for their doctrines, the desire to overthrow the Brahmanical order of things must have been generally and deeply felt. This conclusion shows then that the transformation of the religious life in India was not merely the work of a religious community. Many strove to attain this object although separated from one another. It is now recognisable, though preliminarily, in one point only, that the religious history of India from the fifth century B.C. to the eighth or ninth A.D. was not made up of the fight between Brahmanism and Buddhism alone. This conclusion allows us, lastly, to hope that the thorough investigation of the oldest writings of the Jainas and their relations with Buddhism on the one hand and with Brahmanism on the other will afford many important ways of access to a more exact knowledge concerning the religious ideas which prevailed in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C., and to the establishment of the boundaries of originality between the different systems.

APPENDIX A.

Copies of the mutilated inscriptions referred to, were published by General Sir A. Cunningham in his _Archaeological Survey Reports_, vol. III, plates xiii-xv. Unfortunately they have been presented from 'copies' and are therefore full of errors, which are due for the most part, doubtless, to the copyist and not to the sculptor. It is not difficult, however, in most cases under consideration here, to restore the correct reading. Usually only vowel signs are omitted or misread and, here, and there, consonants closely resembling one another as _va_ and _cha, va_, and _dha, ga_ and _śa, la_ and _na_ are interchanged.

The formulae of the inscriptions are almost universally the same. First comes the date, then follows the name of a reverend teacher, next, the mention of the school and the subdivision of it to which he belonged. Then the persons, who dedicated the statues are named (mostly women), and who belonged to the community of the said teacher. The description of the gift forms the conclusion. The dialect of the inscriptions shows that curious mixture of Sanskṛĭt and Prâkṛĭt which is found in almost all documents of the Indo-Skythian kings, and whichas Dr. Hoernle was the first to recognise—was one of the literary languages of northern and northwestern India during the first centuries before and after the commencement of our era.

In the calculation of dates, I use the favourite starting point for the era of the Indo-Skythian kings, which unfortunately, is not certainly determined, and assume that it is identical with the _Saka_ era of 78-1/4 A.D. The rule of these princes could not have fallen later: in my opinion it was somewhat earlier. [Footnote: What follows is from the author's later and fuller paper in _Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes_, Bd. I, S. 170 f., but abridged.—Ed.] I give here transcripts and restorations of such inscriptions as mention Jaina schools or titles.

1. The inscription which is the most important for my purpose and at the same time one of the best preserved, is Sir A. Cunningham's No. 6, plate xiii, which was found on the base of a Jaina image (_Arch. Sur. Rep_. vol. III, p. 31). The copy compared with a rubbing gives the following reading, (the letters within parentheses are damaged):

L. 1. _Siddhaṁ saṁ 20 gramâ 1 di 10 + 5 ko(ṭi)yato gaṇato (Vâ)ṇiyato kulato V(ai)r(i)to śâkâto Śirikâto_

2. _(bha)ttito vâchakasya Aryya-Saṅghasihasya nir(v)varttanaṁ Dattilasya.... Vi_.-

3. _lasya ko(ṭhu)bi(ki)ya Jayavâlasya Devadâsasya Nâgadinasya cha Nâgadinâye cha (mâ)tu_.

4. _śrâ(vi)kâye (D)i-_

5. _(nâ)ye dânaṁ. i_

6. _Varddhamâna pra_-

7. _timâ_|

The lacuna in line 2, after _Dattilasya_, probably contained the word _duhituye_ or _dhûtuye_ and part of a male name of which only the letter _vi_ is visible. In l. 3, possibly _koṭhabiniye_ is to be read instead of _koṭhubikiye_. As there is room for one more letter at the end of the line, I propose to read _mâtuye_. In l. 5, _Dinâye_ would stand for _Dattâyâḥ_ and be the genitive of a female name _Dinnâ_ or _Dattâ_, which has been shortened _bhâmâvat_. There can be no doubt that the word _śrî_, or _śiri_, which is required, has stood before _Vardhamâna_. With these restorations the translation is as follows:

"Success! The year 20, summer (_month_) I, day 15. An image of glorious Vardhamâna, the gift of the female lay-disciple Dinâ [_i. e_. Dinnâ or Dattâ], the [_daughter_] of Attila, the wife of Vi..la, the mother of Jayavâla [Jayapâla], of Devadâsa and Nâgadina [_i. e_. Nâgadinna or Nâgadatta] and of Nâgadina [_i.e._ of Nâgadinnâ or Nâgadattâ]—(_this statue being_) the _nirvartana_ [Footnote: The word _nirvartana_ has the meaning of 'in obedience to the order', or 'in consequence of the request'. It occurs again in the Prakrit form _nivatanaṁ_ below, in No. 10 (pl. xiv) and it has stood in No. 4, and at the end of l. 2 of No. 7, where the rubbing has _nirva_. It is also found in the next: _Arch. Sur. Rep._ vol. XX, pl. v, No. 6.] of the preacher Aryya-Saṅghasiha [_i.e._ Ârya-Saṅghasiṁha], out of the Koṭiya school, the Vâniya race, the Vairi branch, the Śirikâ division".

The inscription given _Arch. Sur. Rep_. vol. XX, plate v, No. 6 reads, according to an excellent rubbing:

L. 1. _Namo Arahaṁtânain namo Siddhâna saṁ_ 60 [Footnote: In reading the first figure as 60, I follow Sir A. Cunningham. I have never seen the sign, in another inscription. The characters of the inscription are so archaic that this date may refer to an earlier epoch than the Indo-Skythian.] + 2

2. _gra 3 di 5 etâye purvâye Rârakasya Aryakakasaghastasya_

3. _śishyâ Âtapikogahabaryasya nirvartana chatnuvarnasya saṁghasya_

4. _yâ dinnâ paṭibhâ[bho?]ga_ 1 (?) | (?) _Vaihikâya datti_|

"Adoration to the Arhats, adoration to the Siddhas! The year 62, the summer (_month_) 3, the day 5; on the above date a _yâ_. was given to the community, which includes four classes, as an enjoyment (_or_ one share for each) (_this being_) the _nirvartana_ of Atapikogahabarya, the pupil of Arya-Kakasaghasta (Ârya-Karkaśagharshita), a native of Rârâ (Râḍhâ). The gift of Vaihikâ (_or_, Vaihitâ)."

2. With the inscription No. 6 of the year 20, No. 4 (plate xiii) agrees; it was also found on a Jaina pedestal. With better readings from a rubbing of the first side only, I propose for the other portions, of which I have no rubbings, the following emendations,—l. 1, _Vâniyato kulato, sâkhâto_; l. 2, _kuṭumbimye_; I also note that the lacuna in line 2, 3th and 4th sides, would be filled exactly by _ye śrî-Vardhamânasya pratimâ kâritâ sarvasattvâ_. The former existence of the first and last seven letters may be considered certain. My restoration of the whole is,—

L. 1 (1st side) _Siddhaṁ mahârâjasya Kanishkasya râjye saṁvatsare navame_ [Footnote: _Sac. Bks. East_, vol. XXII p. 292.] (2nd side).. _mâsc pratha_ 1 _divase_ 5 _a-(3rd)[syâṁ] purvvâye Koṭiyato gaṇato Vâniya[to]_ (4th) _[ku]lato Vairito śâkâto vâchaka_-

2. (1st side) _[sya] [N]âganaṃdisa ni[rva]r[ta]naṁ Brah[ma]_ ... _[dhû-(2nd)tuye] Bhaṭṭumitasa kuṭu[ṁ]bi[n]i[ye] Vikaṭâ-(3rd)[ye śrî Vardhamânasya pratimâ kâritâ sarva_-(4th) _satvâ]naṁ hita_-

3. _[sukhâye]_;

and the translation:—

"Success! During the reign of the great king Kanishka, in the ninth year, 9, in the first month, 1, of ..., on the day 5,—on the above date [an image of glorious Vardhamâna has been caused to be made] for the welfare [and happiness] of [all created beings] by Vikatâ, the house-wife of Bhaṭṭimita (Bhatṭimitra) and [daughter of] Brâhma ...—(this statue being) the _nirvartana_ of the preacher Nâganaṁidi, out of the Koṭiya school (_gaṇa_), the Vâṇiya line (_kula_), (and) the Vairi branch (_śâkhâ_)."

If we now turn to the _Kalpasûtra_, we find that Suṭṭhiya or Susthita, the eighth successor of Vardhamâna, founded the Kauṭika or Koḍiya gaṇa, which split up into four śâkhâs and four kulas. The third of the former was the Vajrî or Vairî, and the third of the latter was the Vâṇîya or Vâṇijja. It is evident that the names of the _gaṇa, kula_, and _śâkhâ_ agree with those mentioned in the two inscriptions, Koṭiya being a somewhat older form of Koḍiya. But it is interesting to note that the further subdivision of the Vairî śâkhâ—the Śirikâ bhatti (Srikâ bhakti) which inscription No. 6 mentions, is not known to the _Kalpasûtra_. This is a gap such as may by be expected to occur in a list handed down by oral tradition.

3. The Koṭika gaṇa is again mentioned in the badly mutilated inscription No. 19, plate xv. A complete restoration is impossible.

L. 1. _Saṁvalsare 90 va...sya kuṭubani. vadânasya vodhuya_...

It may, however, be inferred from the fragments of the first line that the dedication was made by a woman who was described as the wife (_kuṭumbinî_) of one person and as the daughter-in-law (_vadhu_) of another. The first part of line 2, restored as above gives—"in the congregation of ... out of the Koṭiya school, the Praśnavâhanaka line and the Majhamâ branch...." The restoration of the two names Koṭiya and Praśnavâhanaka seems to me absolutely certain, because they exactly fill the blanks in the inscription, and because the information in the _Kalpasûtra_ (S. B. E. vol. XXII, p. 293) regarding the Madhyamâśâkhâ points in that direction. The latter work tells us that Priyagantha, the second pupil of Susthita and Supratibuddha, founded a śâkhâ, called Madhyamâ or Majhimâ.

As our inscriptions show that Professor Jacobi's explanation of the terms _gaṇa, kula_ and _śâkhâ_ [Footnote: _S. B. E_. vol. XXII, p. 288, note 2.] is correct and that the first denotes the school, the second the line of teachers, and the third a branch which separated from such a line, it follows that the śâkhâs named in the _Kalpasûtra_ without the mention of a _gaṇa_ and _kula_, must belong to the last preceding _gaṇa_ and derive their origin from one of its _kulas_. Hence the Madhyamâ śâkhâ doubtless was included in the Kauṭika gaṇa, and an offshoot of one of its _kulas_, the fourth of which is called Praśnavâhanaka or Paṇhavâhaṇaya. The correctness of these inferences is proved by Râjaśckhara's statement regarding his spiritual descent at the end of the _Prabandha kosha_, which he composed in Vik. saṁ 1405. He informs us that he belonged to the Koṭika gaṇa, the Praśnavâhana kula, the Madhyamâ śâkhâ, the Harshapurîya gachha and the Maladhâri samtâna, founded by the illustrious Abhayasûri.

For the last words of l. 2 I do not dare to propose an emendation; I merely note that the gift seems to have consisted of pillars, _thabâni_, i. e. _stambhâḥ_.

4. The Koṭiya gaṇa seems finally to be mentioned in pl. xiii, No. 2, where the copy of line 1, 2nd side may be corrected as,—

_Siddha—sa 5 he 1 di 10 + 2 asyâ purvvâye Koṭ(iya)_.

5. Names of an older _gaṇa_ and of one of its _kulas_ occur in No. 10 plate xiv, where the copy, which is faulty, may allow the following partial restoration,—-

L. 1. _Sa 40 + 7 gra 2 di 20 etasyâ purvvâye Vâraṇe gaṇe Petidhamikakulavâchakasya Rohanadisya sîsasya Senasya nivatanam sâvaka-Da_

2. ..._pashâṇavadhaya Giha..ka.bha.. prapâ [di]nâ..mâ ta_...

which I translate—

"The year 47, the summer (month) 2, the day 20,—on the above date a drinking fountain was given by ..., the ... of the lay-disciple Da ... (this being) the _nivatana_ of Sena the pupil of Rohanadi (Rohanandi) and preacher of the Petidhamika (Praitidharmika) line, in the Vâraṇa school."

_Varane_ must be a mistake for the very similar word _Chârane_. The second _kula_ of this _gaṇa_ which, according to the _Kalpasûtra_ (_S.B.E_. vol. XXII, p. 291) was founded by Śrîgupta, the fifth pupil of Ârya Suhastin, is the Prîtidharmika (p. 292). It is easy to see that a similar name is hidden in the compound _Petivamikakutavâchakasya_ 'of the preacher of the Petivâmika line'; and an inscription excavated by Dr. Fuhrer at Mathurâ mentions the Petivâmika (_kula_) of the Vârana _gaṇa_. With the second line little can be done: if the letters _prapâ_ are correct and form a word, one of the objects dedicated must have been a drinking fountain.

6. The inscription No. 20, plate xv offers likewise slightly corrupt and mutilated names of a _gaṇa_, a _kula_ and a _sâkhâ_, mentioned in the _Kalpasûtra_. In the lithographed copy lines 3-7 are hopeless and there is no rubbing to help. The word _thitu_ 'of a daughter' in line 6, and the following _ma.uya_ which is probably a misreading of _mâtuye_ 'of the mother' show that this dedication also was made by a female. The last four syllables _vato maho_ are probably the remnant of another namaskâra—_namo bhagavato Mahâvîrasya._ As regards the proper names, Aryya Rehiniya is an impossible form; but on comparison with the next inscription to be mentioned, it is evident that the stone must have read _Aryvodchikiyâto_ or _Aryyadehikiyâto gaṇâ[to]_. [Footnote: _Wiener Zeitshe. f. d. Kunde der Morgenl._, Bd. II, S. 142 f.] According to the _Kalpasûtra_ (_S.B.E_. vol. XXII, p. 291) Ârya-Rohaṇa was the first pupil of Ârya Suhastin and founded the Uddeha gaṇa. The latter split up into four śâkhâs and into six kulas. The name of its fourth śâkhâ, Pûrṇapatrikâ, closely resembles—especially in its consonantal elements—that of the inscription, _Petaputrikâ_, and I do not hesitate in correcting the latter to _Ponapatrikâ_ which would be the equivalent of Sansk. Paurṇapatrikâ. Among the six kulas is the Parihâsaka, and considering the other agreements, I believe it probable that the mutilated name read as _Puridha.ka_ is a misreading of _Parihâka_, We may emend the first two times and read as follows,—

2. _purvv|â|y|e| Aryyo-D|e|h|i|kiyâto gaṇâ|to| P|a|vi|hâsa|k|a|kula|to| P|ou|ap|a|trikât|o| śâkâto gaṇ|i|sya Aryya-Devadatta|sya| na_... ...

3. _ryya-Kshemasya_

4. _prakagiriṇe_

5. _kihadiye prajâ_

6. _tasya Pravarakasya dhitu Varaṇasya gatvakasya ma|t|uya Mitra(?)sa ...datta gâ_

7. _ye..|namo bhaga|vato mah|âvîrasya|_

and the translation (so far) will be,—

"Success! Adoration to the Arhat Mahâvirâ, the destroyer(?) of the gods. In the year of king Vâsudeva, 98, in the month 4 of the rainy season, on the day 11—on the above date ... of the chief of the school (_gaṇin_) Aryya-Devadata (Devadatta) out of the school (_gaṇa_) of the Aryya-Udehikîya (Ârya-Uddehikiya), out of the Parihâsaka line (_kula_), out of the Ponapatrikâ (Paurṇapatrikâ) branch (_śâkhâ_)." [Footnote: At a later date Dr. Bühler added other proofs from inscriptions of the authenticity of the Jaina tradition, in the _Vienna Oriental Journal_, vol. II, pp. 141-146; vol. III, pp. 233-240; vol. IV, pp. 169-173, 313-318; vol. V, pp. 175-180; and in _Epigraphia Indica_, vol. I pp. 371-397; vol. II, pp. 195-212, 311. The paragraphs given above are chiefly from his first paper in the _Vienna Oriental Journal_ (vol. I, pp. 165-180), which appears to be an extended revision of the long footnote in the original paper on the Jainas, but it is here corrected in places from readings in his later papers.—J. B.]

These and many other statements in the inscriptions, about the teachers and their schools are of no small importance in themselves for the early history of the Jainas. The agreement of the above with the _Kalpasûtra_ can best be shown by placing the statements in question against one another. The inscriptions prove the actual existence of twenty of the subdivisions mentioned in the Sthavirâvali of the _Kalpasûtra_. Among its eight gaṇas we can certainly trace three, possibly four—the Uddchika, Vâraṇa, Veśavâḍiya(?) and Koḍiya.

Inscriptions:—

1. Koṭṭiya (Koḍiya) Gana | .———————————————————. | | Bramadâsika kula Uchchenâgarî śâkhâ Thâniya kula Vairî, Vairiyâ śâkhâ P[aṇha]vahu[ṇaya]ku[la] Majhamâ śâkhâ

The Sthavirâvalî of the _Kalpasûtra_ (_Sac. Bks. of the East_, vol. XXII, p. 292) states that Susṭhita and Supratibuddha founded the—

Koṭiya or Kauṭaka Gaṇa | .————————————————————————. | | kulas śâkhâs 1. _Bambhalijja_ 1. _Uchchanâgarî_ 2. Vachchhalijja 2. _Vijjâharî_ 3. _Vâṇîya_ or _Vâṇîjja_ 3. Vajrî 4. Panhavâhanaya 4. _Majjhimáka_ or Praśnavâhanaka 5. Majjhîma (scholar of the two teachers. founded by Priyagantha the second)

Inscriptions:—