Part 1
Transcriber’s notes:
The text of this book has been preserved in its original form apart from correction of two typographic errors: embarrasment → embarrassment, Cassegranian → Cassegrainian. Inconsistent hyphenation has not been altered. A lengthy preliminary section concerning the Smithsonian Institution precedes the actual subject matter.
SMITHSONIAN
CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.
VOL. XIV.
EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY, WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN.--SMITHSON.
CITY OF WASHINGTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
MDCCCLXV.
ADVERTISEMENT.
This volume forms the fourteenth of a series, composed of original memoirs on different branches of knowledge, published at the expense, and under the direction, of the Smithsonian Institution. The publication of this series forms part of a general plan adopted for carrying into effect the benevolent intentions of JAMES SMITHSON, Esq., of England. This gentleman left his property in trust to the United States of America, to found, at Washington, an institution which should bear his own name, and have for its objects the “_increase_ and _diffusion_ of knowledge among men.” This trust was accepted by the Government of the United States, and an Act of Congress was passed August 10, 1846, constituting the President and the other principal executive officers of the general government, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Mayor of Washington, and such other persons as they might elect honorary members, an establishment under the name of the “SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE INCREASE AND DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE AMONG MEN.” The members and honorary members of this establishment are to hold stated and special meetings for the supervision of the affairs of the Institution, and for the advice and instruction of a Board of Regents, to whom the financial and other affairs are intrusted.
The Board of Regents consists of three members _ex officio_ of the establishment, namely, the Vice-President of the United States, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and the Mayor of Washington, together with twelve other members, three of whom are appointed by the Senate from its own body, three by the House of Representatives from its members, and six persons appointed by a joint resolution of both houses. To this Board is given the power of electing a Secretary and other officers, for conducting the active operations of the Institution.
To carry into effect the purposes of the testator, the plan of organization should evidently embrace two objects: one, the increase of knowledge by the addition of new truths to the existing stock; the other, the diffusion of knowledge, thus increased, among men. No restriction is made in favor of any kind of knowledge; and, hence, each branch is entitled to, and should receive, a share of attention.
The Act of Congress, establishing the Institution, directs, as a part of the plan of organization, the formation of a Library, a Museum, and a Gallery of Art, together with provisions for physical research and popular lectures, while it leaves to the Regents the power of adopting such other parts of an organization as they may deem best suited to promote the objects of the bequest.
After much deliberation, the Regents resolved to divide the annual income into two parts--one part to be devoted to the increase and diffusion of knowledge by means of original research and publications--the other part of the income to be applied in accordance with the requirements of the Act of Congress, to the gradual formation of a Library, a Museum, and a Gallery of Art.
The following are the details of the parts of the general plan of organization provisionally adopted at the meeting of the Regents, Dec. 8, 1847.
DETAILS OF THE FIRST PART OF THE PLAN.
I. TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.--_It is proposed to stimulate research, by offering rewards for original memoirs on all subjects of investigation._
1. The memoirs thus obtained, to be published in a series of volumes, in a quarto form, and entitled “Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.”
2. No memoir, on subjects of physical science, to be accepted for publication, which does not furnish a positive addition to human knowledge, resting on original research; and all unverified speculations to be rejected.
3. Each memoir presented to the Institution, to be submitted for examination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in the branch to which the memoir pertains; and to be accepted for publication only in case the report of this commission is favorable.
4. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution, and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless a favorable decision be made.
5. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the Transactions of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all the colleges, and principal libraries, in this country. One part of the remaining copies may be offered for sale; and the other carefully preserved, to form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand from new institutions.
6. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs to be given to the public, through the annual report of the Regents to Congress.
II. TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.--_It is also proposed to appropriate a portion of the income, annually, to special objects of research, under the direction of suitable persons._
1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended by counsellors of the Institution.
2. Appropriations in different years to different objects; so that, in course of time, each branch of knowledge may receive a share.
3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published, with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.
4. Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made:--
(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the problem of American storms.
(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological, mathematical, and topographical surveys, to collect material for the formation of a Physical Atlas of the United States.
(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determination of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of light; chemical analyses of soils and plants; collection and publication of articles of science, accumulated in the offices of Government.
(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical, moral, and political subjects.
(5.) Historical researches, and accurate surveys of places celebrated in American history.
(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the different races of men in North America; also explorations, and accurate surveys, of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people of our country.
I. TO DIFFUSE KNOWLEDGE.--_It is proposed to publish a series of reports, giving an account of the new discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in all branches of knowledge not strictly professional._
1. Some of these reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as the income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of knowledge may indicate.
2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators, eminent in the different branches of knowledge.
3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publications, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report; to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the title-page of the report.
4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons interested in a particular branch, can procure the parts relating to it, without purchasing the whole.
5. These reports may be presented to Congress, for partial distribution, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific institutions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.
_The following are some of the subjects which may be embraced in the reports:--_
I. PHYSICAL CLASS.
1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry, and meteorology.
2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.
3. Agriculture.
4. Application of science to arts.
II. MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.
5. Ethnology, including particular history, comparative philology, antiquities, &c.
6. Statistics and political economy.
7. Mental and moral philosophy.
8. A survey of the political events of the world; penal reform, &c.
III. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.
9. Modern literature.
10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.
11. Bibliography.
12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.
II. TO DIFFUSE KNOWLEDGE.--_It is proposed to publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general interest._
1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the best exposition of a given subject.
2. The treatises to be submitted to a commission of competent judges, previous to their publication.
DETAILS OF THE SECOND PART OF THE PLAN OF ORGANIZATION.
This part contemplates the formation of a Library, a Museum, and a Gallery of Art.
1. To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required, consisting, 1st, of a complete collection of the transactions and proceedings of all the learned societies of the world; 2d, of the more important current periodical publications, and other works necessary in preparing the periodical reports.
2. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of objects to verify its own publications. Also a collection of instruments of research in all branches of experimental science.
3. With reference to the collection of books, other than those mentioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first purchased may be such as are not to be found elsewhere in the United States.
4. Also catalogues of memoirs, and of books in foreign libraries, and other materials, should be collected, for rendering the Institution a centre of bibliographical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any work which he may require.
5. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase by donation, as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make provision for their reception; and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary to purchase any article of this kind.
6. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art, casts of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.
7. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of expense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union, and other similar societies.
8. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of antiquity, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.
9. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress, will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit new objects of art; distinguished individuals should also be invited to give lectures on subjects of general interest.
* * * * *
In accordance with the rules adopted in the programme of organization, each memoir in this volume has been favorably reported on by a Commission appointed for its examination. It is however impossible, in most cases, to verify the statements of an author; and, therefore, neither the Commission nor the Institution can be responsible for more than the general character of a memoir.
* * * * *
The following rules have been adopted for the distribution of the quarto volumes of the Smithsonian Contributions:--
1. They are to be presented to all learned societies which publish Transactions, and give copies of these, in exchange, to the Institution.
2. Also, to all foreign libraries of the first class, provided they give in exchange their catalogues or other publications, or an equivalent from their duplicate volumes.
3. To all the colleges in actual operation in this country, provided they furnish, in return, meteorological observations, catalogues of their libraries and of their students, and all other publications issued by them relative to their organization and history.
4. To all States and Territories, provided there be given, in return, copies of all documents published under their authority.
5. To all incorporated public libraries in this county, not included in any of the foregoing classes, now containing more than 10,000 volumes; and to smaller libraries, where a whole State or large district would be otherwise unsupplied.
OFFICERS
OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, _Ex-officio_ PRESIDING OFFICER OF THE INSTITUTION.
THE VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, _Ex officio_ SECOND PRESIDING OFFICER.
SALMON P. CHASE, CHANCELLOR OF THE INSTITUTION.
JOSEPH HENRY, SECRETARY OF THE INSTITUTION.
SPENCER F. BAIRD, ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
W. W. SEATON, TREASURER.
ALEXANDER D. BACHE, } RICHARD WALLACH, } EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. RICHARD DELAFIELD, }
REGENTS.
---- ---- _Vice-President of the United States_. SALMON P. CHASE, _Chief Justice of the United States_. RICHARD WALLACH, _Mayor of the City of Washington_. LYMAN TRUMBULL, _Member of the Senate of the United States_. WILLIAM P. FESSENDEN, " " " " " " GARRETT DAVIS, " " " " " " SAMUEL S. COX, _Member of the House of Representatives U. S._ JAMES W. PATTERSON, " " " " " " HENRY W. DAVIS, " " " " " " WILLIAM B. ASTOR, _Citizen of New York_. THEODORE D. WOOLSEY, " _of Connecticut_. LOUIS AGASSIZ, " _of Massachusetts_. (Vacancy.) ---- ---- ALEXANDER D. BACHE, " _of Washington_. RICHARD DELAFIELD, " _of Washington_.
MEMBERS EX-OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.
ANDREW JOHNSON, _President of the United States_. ---- ---- _Vice-President of the United States_. WILLIAM H. SEWARD, _Secretary of State_. HUGH MCCULLOCH, _Secretary of the Treasury_. EDWIN M. STANTON, _Secretary of War_. GIDEON WELLES, _Secretary of the Navy_. WILLIAM DENNISON, _Postmaster-General_. JAMES SPEED, _Attorney-General_. SALMON P. CHASE, _Chief Justice of the United States_. DAVID P. HOLLOWAY, _Commissioner of Patents_. RICHARD WALLACH, _Mayor of the City of Washington_.
HONORARY MEMBER.
JAMES HARLAN. _The Secretary of the Interior_.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.[1]
[1] Each memoir is separately paged and indexed.
PAGE ARTICLE I. INTRODUCTION. Pp. 16. Advertisement iii List of Officers of the Smithsonian Institution ix
ARTICLE II. DISCUSSION OF THE MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE GIRARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, AND 1845. Third Section, comprising Parts VII, VIII, AND IX. VERTICAL FORCE. INVESTIGATION OF THE ELEVEN (OR TEN) YEAR PERIOD AND OF THE DISTURBANCES OF THE VERTICAL COMPONENT OF THE MAGNETIC FORCE, AND APPENDIX ON THE MAGNETIC EFFECT OF THE AURORA BOREALIS; WITH AN INVESTIGATION OF THE SOLAR DIURNAL VARIATION, AND OF THE ANNUAL INEQUALITY OF THE VERTICAL FORCE; AND OF THE LUNAR EFFECT OR THE VERTICAL FORCE, THE INCLINATION, AND TOTAL FORCE. By A. D. BACHE, LL. D., F. R. S., Mem. Corr. Acad. Sc. Paris; Prest. Nat. Acad. Sciences; Superintendent U. S. Coast Survey. Pp. 72. (Published May, 1864.)
ARTICLE III. DISCUSSION OF THE MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE GIRARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, AND 1845. Fourth Section, comprising Parts X, XI, AND XII. DIP AND TOTAL FORCE. ANALYSIS OF THE DISTURBANCES OF THE DIP AND TOTAL FORCE; DISCUSSION OF THE SOLAR DIURNAL VARIATION AND ANNUAL INEQUALITY OF THE DIP AND TOTAL FORCE; AND DISCUSSION OF THE ABSOLUTE DIP, WITH THE FINAL VALUES FOR DECLINATION, DIP AND FORCE BETWEEN 1841 AND 1845. By A. D. BACHE, LL. D., F. R. S., Mem. Corr. Acad. Sc. Paris; Prest. Nat. Acad. Sciences; Superintendent U. S. Coast Survey. Pp. 44. (Published January, 1865.)
ARTICLE IV. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A SILVERED GLASS TELESCOPE, FIFTEEN AND A HALF INCHES IN APERTURE, AND ITS USE IN CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY. By HENRY DRAPER, M. D., Professor of Natural Science in the University of New York. Pp. 60. (Published July, 1864.)
§1. Grinding and Polishing the Mirrors 2 §2. The Telescope Mounting 27 §3. The Clock Movement 38 §4. The Observatory 41 §5. The Photographic Laboratory 46 §6. The Photographic Enlarger 51
ARTICLE V. PALÆONTOLOGY OF THE UPPER MISSOURI: A REPORT UPON COLLECTIONS MADE PRINCIPALLY BY THE EXPEDITIONS UNDER COMMAND OF LIEUT. G. K. WARREN, U. S. Top. Engrs., IN 1855 AND 1856. INVERTEBRATES. By F. B. MEEK AND F. V. HAYDEN, M. D. Part I. Pp. 158, and five Plates. (Published April, 1865.)
Introductory Remarks vii I. Silurian Age. Potsdam Period 1 II. Carboniferous Age. Carboniferous Period 11 III. Carboniferous Age. Permian Period 48 IV. Reptilian Age. Jurassic Period 66 Index 121 Explanations of Plates.
ARTICLE VI. CRETACEOUS REPTILES OF THE UNITED STATES. By JOSEPH LEIDY, M. D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania, Curator of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Pp. 140 and twenty plates. (Published May, 1865.)
Introduction 1 Sauria 5 Chelonia 104 A Synopsis, in which an attempt is made to define more closely the Genera and Species of Reptiles whose remains are described in the preceding pages 115 Index 121 References to the Plates 123
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. ----180----
ON THE CONSTRUCTION
OF A
SILVERED GLASS TELESCOPE,
FIFTEEN AND A HALF INCHES IN APERTURE,
AND
ITS USE IN CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY.
BY
HENRY DRAPER, M. D., PROFESSOR OF NATURAL SCIENCE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK.
[ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION, JANUARY, 1864.]
COMMISSION
TO WHICH THIS PAPER HAS BEEN REFERRED.
Prof. WOLCOTT GIBBS. Com. J. M. GILLISS, U. S. N.
JOSEPH HENRY, _Secretary S. I._
COLLINS, PRINTER, PHILADELPHIA.
CONTENTS.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE TELESCOPE. MEMOIR DIVIDED INTO SIX SECTIONS:--
§1. GRINDING AND POLISHING THE MIRRORS 2
1. _Experiments on a metal speculum._ Corrosion by aqua regia; voltaic grinding 2
2. _Silvering glass._ Foucault’s and Cimeg’s processes; details of silvering a mirror; thickness and durability of silver films; their use in daguerreotyping 2
3. _Grinding and polishing glass._ Division of subject 6
_a._ Peculiarities of glass; effects of pressure; effects of heat; oblique mirrors 6
_b._ Emery and rouge; elutriation of emery 10
_c._ Tools of iron, lead, pitch; the gauges; the leaden tool; the iron tool; the pitch polisher 10
_d._ Methods of examination; two tests, eyepiece and opaque screen; appearance of spherical surface; oblate spheroidal surface; hyperbolic surface; irregular surface; details of tests; atmospheric movements; correction for parallel rays by measure; appearances in relief on mirrors 13
_e._ Machines; Lord Rosse; Mr. Lassell; spiral stroke machine; its construction and use; the foot-power; method of local corrections; its advantages and disadvantages; machine for local corrections; description and use 19
4. _Eyepieces, plane mirrors, and test objects_ 26
§2. THE TELESCOPE MOUNTING 27
Stationary eyepiece; method of counterpoising 27
_a._ The tube; the mirror support; air sac; currents in the tube 28
_b._ The supporting frame 31
§3. THE CLOCK MOVEMENT 33
_a._ The sliding plateholder; the frictionless slide 33
_b._ The clepsydra; the sand-clock 36
_c._ The sun camera 40
§4. THE OBSERVATORY 41
_a._ The building 41
_b._ The dome; its peculiarities 44
_c._ The observer’s chair 45
§5. THE PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY 46
_a._ Description of the apartment 46
_b._ Photographic processes; washed plates; difficulties of celestial photography 47
§6. THE PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGER 51
_a._ Low powers; use of a concave mirror, its novelty and advantages; of the making of reverses 51
_b._ High powers; microscopic photography 54
AN ACCOUNT
OF
THE CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF A SILVERED GLASS TELESCOPE.
The construction of a reflecting telescope capable of showing every celestial object now known, is not a very difficult task. It demands principally perseverance and careful observation of minutiæ. The cost of materials is but trifling compared with the result obtained, and I can see no reason why silvered glass instruments should not come into general use among amateurs. The future hopes of Astronomy lie in the multitude of observers, and in the concentration of the action of many minds. If what is written here should aid in the advance of that noble study, I shall feel amply repaid for my labor.