Part 19

[47] "One of the laminated formations [in Auvergne] may be said to furnish a chronometer for itself. It consists of sixty feet of siliceous and calcareous deposits, each as thin as pasteboard, and bearing upon their separating surfaces the stems and seed-vessels of small water-plants in infinite numbers; and countless multitudes of minute shells, resembling some species of our common snail-shells. These layers have been formed with evident regularity, and to each of them we may reasonably assign the term of one season, that is a year. Now thirty of such layers frequently do not exceed one inch in thickness. Let us average them at twenty-five. The thickness of the stratum is at least sixty feet; and thus we gain, for the whole of this formation alone, eighteen thousand years."--DR. J. P. SMITH, _Scripture and Geology_, 5th Edition, p. 137.

[48] "This fact has now been verified in almost all parts of the globe, and has led to a conviction that at successive periods of the past the same area of land and water has been inhabited by species of animals and plants as distinct as those which now people the antipodes, or which now co-exist in the arctic, temperate, and tropical zones. It appears that from the remotest periods there has been ever a coming in of new organic forms, and an extinction of those which pre-existed on the earth; some species having endured for a longer, others for a shorter time; but none having ever re-appeared, after once dying out."--LYELL'S _Elements of Geology_, p. 275.

[49] J. Pye Smith, Scripture and Geology, 5th Ed., p. 69.

[50] In Dr. Pye Smith's Scripture and Geology, p. 382, (Ed. 1855.)

[51] I would venture respectfully to suggest that the following argument by Mr. Babbage is vitiated throughout by a confounding of the phenomena observed with the conclusions inferred from them.

"What, then, have those accomplished, who have restricted the Mosaic account of the creation to that diminutive period, which is, as it were, but a span in the duration of the earth's existence, and who have imprudently rejected _the testimony of the senses_, when opposed to their philological criticisms? The very arguments which Protestants have opposed to the doctrine of transubstantiation, would, if their view of the case were correct, be equally irresistible against the Book of Genesis. But let us consider what would be the conclusion of any reasonable being in a parallel case. Let us imagine a manuscript written three thousand years ago, and professing to be a revelation from the Deity, in which it was stated that the colour of the paper of the very book now in the reader's hands is _black_, and that the colour of the ink in the characters which he is now reading is _white_. With that reasonable doubt of his own individual faculties which would become the inquirer into the truth of a statement said to be derived from so high an origin, he would ask all those around him, whether to their senses the paper appeared to be _black_, and the ink to be _white_. If he found the senses of other individuals agree with his own, then he would undoubtedly pronounce the alleged revelation a forgery, and those who propounded it to be either deceived or deceivers."--_Ninth Bridgewater Treatise_, p. 68.

[52] Dr. Pye Smith calls the hypothesis of progressive development "the crude impertinence of a few foreign sophists,"--and he states as a fact, "that all the great geologists repudiate such a notion with abhorrence, and give physical evidence of its falsehood."--_Scripture and Geology_, (5th Ed.) p. 420. See also Professor Owen in "Rep. Brit Assoc." 1842; Professor Sedgwick, in "Discourse on Stud. of Camb.;" Professor Whewell, in "Hist. of Inductive Sciences;" Professor Ansted, in "Anc. World;" &c.

[53] Wallace's "Palms of the Amazon," p. 35.

[54] Roxburgh.

[55] Rumph, v. 100.

[56] My observations rest on the fine specimen of this plant preserved in the British Museum. Dr. Harvey, however, says, "The growth of the trunk in _Kingia_ is very slow, and a specimen about ten feet high may probably be some hundreds of years old." Report of Dubl. Univ. Zool. and Bot. Assoc. for Feb. 25, 1857. See the note _infra_ on page 188.

[57] Gaudichaud: Recherches Gén. sur l'Organographie, p. 129.

[58] On the development of _Loranthus_, &c. Linn. Tr. xviii p. 71, (_abridged_).

[59] "Each and every plant is at first a cell."--"New cells can never be formed externally to, but only within, other cells already formed." (A. Braun, on the Veg. Indiv.)

"The process of the propagation of cells, by the formation of new cells in their interior, is an universal law in the vegetable kingdom." (Schleiden; Grundzüge).

"Cell-formation in plants takes place only in the cavities of older cells." (Mohl, on the Veg. Cell)

[60] See Von Martius, on the Brazilian Locusts.

[61] The origin of coral-stocks is minutely described by Ehrenberg, in the Abhandl. for 1832, where he makes the following remarks:--"The coral mass is neither a mere structure composed of many animals arbitrarily conjoined, as Ellis supposed; nor one single animal with many heads, or with simple furcations, as Cavolini maintained; nor a vegetable stem with animal flowers, as Linnæus expressed it; it is a body of families, a _living_ tree of consanguinity; the single animals belonging to it, and continually developing _upon the primary ancestor_, are entirely isolated within themselves, and capable of complete independence, _although unable to achieve it_."

[62] This is not quite in accord with Lamouroux's account; but it is more consistent with what we know of polype-growth.

[63] We lack precise data on which to found conclusions as to the actual rate of growth of many animals. Sir John Dalyell's famous Actinia, now in the possession of Dr. Fleming, affords us a proof that the Zoophytes are long-lived, and slow in attaining maturity. It will be readily seen, however, that the argument in the text does not depend on the actual period evolved. The lapse of _a_ period of time, no matter how long, is the only essential point.

[64] "All the component cells of any one organism may be considered as the descendants of the primordial cell in which it originated." (_Dr. Carpenter_; Comp. Physiol.; p. 396. 4th Ed.)

[65] I conclude so; because I have kept specimens of _Echinus_, not full grown, in healthy condition, for nearly a year, without any perceptible increase in their dimensions.

[66] I am not aware that this stage of the Entozoon has been actually observed; but from what we know of its previous and subsequent history, the correctness of the statement in the text will scarcely be disputed. (See Prof. Owen: Comp. Anat. of Inverteb. Ed. 2. p. 74.)

[67] See Notes to "Marmion."

[68] Report on Brit. Annelida, p. 194.

[69] We have no direct observations, that I am aware of, on the larval state of the African _Goliathi_; but their near ally, the _Cetonia aurata_ of Europe, passes four years in the grub condition, as does also the _Melolontha vulgaris_, another lamellicorn beetle. The _Lucanus cervus_, or Stag-beetle, continues a larva for six years.

[70] Fabre; Ann. d. Sci. Nat.; iii. 1855.

[71] _B. splendida_, has been ascertained to have existed, as an inmate of the wood of a table, for _more than twenty_ years. (Linn. Trans.; x. 399.)

[72] The rate of increase in dimensions shown by specimens of this species, now so frequently kept in Aquaria, warrants this assertion; though _how many_ years a Crab takes to attain adult size, no exact observations, so far as I know, testify.

[73] The exuvia of the cirri are sloughed from the _Balanidæ_ about every week in summer; and perhaps this process is coetaneous with an addition to the valves.

[74] Mr. Broderip supposes it to have had the power of swimming freely, and of seeking its future habitation, _as a bivalve_; but Lovèn had not then made known to us the embryogeny and metamorphosis of the _Conchifera_. It is much more probable that the case is as I have ventured to assume in the text.

[75] Bennett.

[76] Rumphius.

[77] The periodical formation of these septa in the progress of growth, is analogous to that of the projecting external plates in the Wendletrap, and of the rows of spines in the _Murex_; but those external processes consist of the opake calcareous layer of the shell, whilst the internal processes in the _Nautilus_ consist of the nacreous layer, like the septa in the _Turritella_. Thus the embryo _Nautilus_ at first inhabits a simple shell, like that of most univalve Mollusca, and manifests, according to the usual law, the general type at the early stage of its existence; although it soon begins, and apparently before having quitted the ovum, to take on the special form.--Prof. Owen's _Lect. on Invertebrate Anim._ p. 593, 2d Ed.

[78] Woodward's "Manual of the Mollusca," p. 83.

[79] Carpenter, on the Microscope, &c., p. 602.

[80] Grant's Comp. Anat., 53.

[81] See Jones's General Outline, p. 506. (Ed. 1841.)

[82] Such is the common statement. Dr. Harlan, however, observes that "the rattle is cast annually [with the sloughed skin], and, _consequently_, no inference as to the age of the animal can be drawn from the number of pieces which compose the rattles." (_Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci._; v. 368.) I confess this appears to me to be a _non sequitur_; for is it not quite possible that one may be added to the _number_ annually, without involving the actual perpetuity of the preceding ones? It is evident that the increase must take place at some time or other, and it seems to me more likely to occur at the sloughing of the skin, that is, annually, than either oftener or seldomer.

[83] Martin "On the Horse," p. 111.

[84] Professor Owen's "Odontography:"--to which splendid work I am indebted, for the engravings of these skulls.

[85] Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia.

[86] Owen's Odontogr. p. 631.

[87] Penny Cyclopædia; _art._ BONE.

[88] Dr. Carpenter's Human Physiol. p. 916. (Ed. 1855.)

[89] Sir Thomas Browne, indeed, denies Adam a navel; I presume, however, physiologists will rather take my view. Sir Thomas did not know that the prochronism which he thought absurd pervaded every part of organic structure. The following is his verdict:--

"Another Mistake there may be in the Picture of our first Parents, who after the manner of theyre Posteritie are bothe delineated with a Navill: and this is observable not only in ordinarie and stayned peeces, but in the Authenticke Draughts of Vrbin, Angelo, and others. Which, notwythstandynge, cannot be allowed, except wee impute that vnto the first Cause, which we impose not on the second; or what wee deny vnto Nature, wee impute vnto Naturity it selfe; that is, that in the first and moste accomplyshed Peece, the Creator affected Superfluities, or ordayned Parts withoute all Vse or Offyce."--_Pseudodoxia Epidemica_, lib. v.; cap. v.

[90] Blackwood, in an excellent article on Johnston's _Physical Geography_ (April, 1849), says:--"Adam _must_ have been created in the full possession of manhood; for if he had been formed an infant, he must have perished through mere helplessness. When God looked on this world, and pronounced all to be 'very good,'--which implies the completion of his purpose, and the perfection of his work--is it possible to conceive that he looked only on the germs of production, on plains covered with eggs, or seas filled with spawn, or forests still buried in the capsules of seeds; on a creation utterly shapeless, lifeless and silent, instead of the myriads of delighted existence, all enjoying the first sense of being?"

And an eminent Geologist considers the position indisputable, as regards man:--"To the slightest rational consideration it must be evident, that the first human pair were created in the perfection of their bodily organs and mental powers."--(Dr. J. P. Smith; "Script. and Geol.;" 219.)

[91] Gen. i. 12, 21, 26, 27.

[92] Penny Cyclop.; _art._ ARACHIS.

[93] Linn. Trans. iii. 23.

[94] Introd. to Entom.; Lett. xi. § 2.

[95] Jones; Nat. Hist. Anim.; ii. 151.

[96] Cf. Mr. Lubbock (Proc. Roy. Soc. viii. 354), with Dr. Baird (Brit Entomostr. p. 82).

[97] Dr. Carpenter: Comp. Phys.; p. 615.

[98] Dr. Alex. Braun, "On the Veget. Individual." (Ann. N. H. Nov. 1855.)

[99] It may be objected that _Elephas primigenius_ is absolutely distinct from _E. Indicus_. I answer, Yes, _specifically_ distinct; and so am I distinct from my father,--_individually_ distinct. But as individual distinctness does not preclude the individual from being the exponent of a circular revolution in the life-history of the species, so specific distinctness may not preclude the species from being the exponent of a circular revolution in some higher, unnamed, life-history.

[100] "We may assert of the individual, as well as of the species, that it completes the cycle of its existence in a succession of subordinate generations; while, on the other hand, we may affirm of the species, that, like the individual, it exhibits a determinate cycle of development." "The species itself may be regarded as an inferior 'momentum' of a still more comprehensive cycle of development."--_Dr. A. Braun_, "_On the Vegetable Individual._"

"The species is an individual of a higher rank."--_Link: Elements of Botanical Science_, vi. 11.

"Species, like individuals, have a certain limited term of existence. It is the fact, that, _according to some general law_, species of animals are introduced, last for a limited period, and are then succeeded by others performing the same office."--_Ansted's Ancient World_, 52, 54.

[101] "The unity of the plan of organization, and the regular succession of animal forms, point out a _beginning_ of this great kingdom on the surface of our globe, although the earliest stages of its development may now be effaced: and the continuity of the series though all geological epochs, and the _gradual transitions_ which _connect_ the species of one formation with those of the next in succession, distinctly indicate that they form _the parts of one creation_, and not the heterogeneous remnants of successive kingdoms begun and destroyed: so that, while they present the best records of the changes which the surface of the globe has undergone, they likewise afford the best testimony of the recent origin of the present crust of our planet, and of all its organic inhabitants."--_Dr. Grant, in Br. Sci. Annual for 1839._

[102] Dr. Harris has the following observations:--

"Why might not God have created the crust of the earth, just as it is, with all its numberless stratifications, and diversified formations, complete? And the analogy for such an exercise of creative power is supposed to be found in the creation of Adam, not as an infant, but as _an adult_; and in the production of the _full-sized_ trees of Eden. To which the reply is direct: the maturity of the first man, and of the objects around him, could not deceive him by implying that they had slowly grown to that state. His first knowledge was the knowledge of the contrary. He lived, partly, in order to proclaim the fact of his creation. And, could his own body, or any of the objects created at the same time, have been subjected to a physiological examination, they would, no doubt, have been found to indicate their miraculous production in their very destitution of all the traces of an early growth; whereas the shell of the earth is a crowded storehouse of evidence of its gradual formation. So that the question, expressed in other language, amounts to this: Might not the God of infinite truth have enclosed in the earth, at its creation, evidence of its having existed ages before its actual production? Of course, the objector would disavow such a sentiment. But such appears to be the real import of the objection; and, as such, it involves its own refutation."--_Pre-Adamite Earth_, p. 83.

Now this reasoning appeared, doubtless, very triumphant to the worthy Doctor: and yet a very little acquaintance with physiology would have taught him that he was enunciating an absurdity. The very supposition which he considers as self-refuting, is an indubitable physiological fact. I have abundantly shown, in the text, that the _cells which compose_ the tree or the animal are as undeniable evidences of past processes as the concentric cylinders of timber, or the superposed layers of bone and scale.

[103] I here assume the life-history of the globe to be represented by a straight line, because I cannot _prove_ it to be a circle. I cannot even _imagine_ its circularity. I do not mean the possibility;--I can imagine _that_: but the _mode_ I cannot conceive. This, however, does not disprove the possibility. If man's science extended not beyond the accumulated observations of his own life, he would probably be quite incompetent to conceive how the life-history of such a tree as the Oak could be a circle; if he had never seen more than one individual, which was a tree when he was born, and continued to flourish till his death.

[104] The existence of Coprolites--the fossilized excrement of animals--has been considered a more than ordinarily triumphant proof of real pre-existence. Would it not be closely parallel with the presence of fæces in the intestines of an animal at the moment of creation? Yet this appears to me demonstrable. It may seem at first sight ridiculous, and will probably be represented so; but truth is truth. I have already proved that blood must have been in the arteries and veins of the newly-created Man (_vide_ p. 276, _supra_), and that blood presupposes chyle and chyme; but what became of the indigestible residuum of the chyme, when the chyle was separated from it? Would it not, as a matter of course, be found in the intestines? If the principle is true, that the created organism was exactly what it would have been had it reached that condition by the ordinary course of nature, then fæcal residua must have been in the intestines as certainly as chyle in the lacteals, or blood in the capillaries.

[105] _Blackwood_; April, 1849; p. 412.

[106] Strictly speaking, the current is a lagging behind of the water, which cannot keep pace with the speed communicated to the solid crust of the globe at its equatorial regions. The trade-wind is owing to the same cause.

[107] Philos. Trans. for 1802; p. 498.

[108] Beitrage, p. 152.

[109] Dr. A. Braun, On the Veg. Indiv.

[110] See _ante_, p. 233.

[111] Fauna Littor. Norveg.; i. 47.

* * * * *

MARINE

NATURAL HISTORY CLASS.

In the summer of 1855, I met, at Ilfracombe, on the coast of North Devon, a small party of ladies and gentlemen, who formed themselves into a Class for the study of Marine Natural History. There was much to be done in the way of collecting, much to be learned in the way of study. Not a few species of interest, and some rarities, fell under our notice, scattered as we were over the rocks, and peeping into the pools, almost every day for a month. Then the prizes were to be brought home, and kept in little Aquariums for the study of their habits, their beauties to be investigated by the pocket-lens, and the minuter kinds to be examined under the microscope. An hour or two was spent on the shore every day on which the tide and the weather were suitable; and, when otherwise, the occupation was varied by an indoors' lesson, on identifying and comparing the characters of the animals obtained, the specimens themselves affording illustrations. Thus the two great desiderata of young naturalists were attained simultaneously; they learned at the same time how to collect, and how to determine the names and the zoological relations of the specimens when found.

A little also was effected in the way of dredging the sea-bottom, and in surface-fishing for Medusæ, &c.; but our chief attention was directed to shore-collecting. Altogether, the experiment was found so agreeable, that I propose to repeat it by forming a similar party every year, if spared, at some suitable part of the coast.

Such ladies or gentlemen as may wish to join the Class should give in their names to me, early in the summer; and any preliminary inquiries about plans, terms, &c. shall meet the requisite attention.

P. H. GOSSE.

MARYCHURCH, TORQUAY, _Oct. 1857_.